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Soe
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 21, 1931
< i ; . é 2 : f gr = ey , 29D 260 x rj XG ra Sflainsa t we BOARD OF EDITORS a
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Veet AORN ATT 3.” ? RPA HA teh ie = ree ih Ronee MP ch ee Es :
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apn iy ae SEE. At ott le RAF dc a aa Bul ees i 5 % Hohe ay eA Bee ; = mE tA. ee Rane 19 i : ne = : Peery ; cBhit i ¥. gt wig it Ne es ied 2 ee. ¥ 9 *. Ml { X , yh} fat , ) K or th Lua i nied ra hy } 4 A CFs, Vit fees pa } Tee ak ff 5 = OTS OE eh See DER ied he A ae C4 es ERATE aye. e ae : i : A: r
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de
JANUARY 4, 1931 _ No. 1
JOURN
OF THE
Oe oy ary ERAN
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
EpGar W. Woo.tarpD
Epa@ar T. WHERRY GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY
C, WrtHe Cooke TNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
U. 8S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS H. E. Merwin
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PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
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aK
JOURNAL |
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 21 ‘January 4, 1931 No. 1
GEOLOGY.—Recent German theories about structural geology.! Curt TEICHERT, University of Freiburg, Germany. (Communi- cated by CaRLE H. DANE.)
The development of new ideas in Germany in the field of structural geology had already begun during the war when as a first impetus Wegener’s book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Oz2ane appeared. This book has certainly caused more discussion among geologists of all countries than any other book in this line before or since. The fact that it has been translated into many languages and so far has ap- peared in four editions shows best the deep interest it has aroused everywhere. Although WEGENER’s ideas meet with the objection of the majority of the geologists they certainly have been a great stim- ulus to the consideration of many questions of structural geology. Since Wegener’s book has been translated into English and has been given much attention in English and American literature I shall not enter into any discussion of this theory.
Several attempts have been made to modify Wegener’s ideas, most of them by geophysicists who generally have more widely adopted the hypothesis of shifting continents than geologists have done. Only one such attempt has been made on a bigger scale and that by a geolo- gist, RICHARD STAUB, now head professor of geology at the University of Zurich.2. For along time Staub has been a very diligent and success- ful student of stratigraphical and structural problems in the Alps. His Bau der Alpen, a comprehensive study of the structure of the Alps, published in 1924, has met with deep interest among European geolo-
1 Received November 28, 1930.
2 RicHARD Straus. Der Bewegungsmechanismus der Erde. (Berlin, 1928.) Although Staub is a Swiss geologist, his ideas may be considered in this place because his book is written in German and published in Germany.
1
2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1
gists and many of his conclusions are rather generally accepted by other prominent students in this field. Thus itis entirely natural that Staub should start out from the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth. He is one of the extreme ‘‘Nappisten,’’ one of the believers in that theory founded by ALBERT Herm that the Alps were built by a series of tre- mendous overthrusts. Staub himself has done much to strengthen this hypothesis as far as the structure of the Alps is concerned but on the other hand he is inclined to see all the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth from the same viewpoint as he sees the Alps. He and many other European geologists like to speak of the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth as ‘‘the Alpine mountain ranges.” Thisis arather dangerous terminology because it suggests not only a contemporaneous origin, but also a building plan and structure for all Tertiary mountain ranges similar to that of the Alps, which is apparently not the case.
Staub studies the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth, and as a result of these studies he finds that they all form a great uniform system. There is no such thing as the mediterranean system in contrast to a circum-Pacific system, no particular Eastern Asiatic or Australic ranges. All the high Tertiary ranges are a unit. The backbone of this great system is the eastwest trending range of the Alps which continues eastward into the Himalaya and which has also a westward prolonga- tion through the Atlantic ocean to Middle America. (Thus Staub disregards the obvious uniformity of the mid-Atlantic ridge.) In Middle America the main system branches into one great system of mountain ranges trending northward into Alaska and embracing the Pacific ocean on its northeastern side, and into another system trending southward along the west coast of South America and continuing into” Antarctica thus embracing the Pacific on its southeastern side. In the same way the eastern end of this central system branches into two minor systems of ranges, one following the northwestern border of the Pacific up to Kamchatka, the other going southward and continuing into the ranges of New Zealand.
As a result one obtains a picture of a great uniform system dividing the main continental masses into two parts, the northern of which is called Laurasia and the Southern Gondwana, and branching out east and west into gigantic arms which embrace on all sides the big mass of the Pacific ocean. This is the way in which Staub sees connected the great ‘‘Alpine’”’ mountain ranges of the earth.
How to explain this picture, is the next question Staub is going toanswer. ‘This is certainly not a structure due to a contraction of the
JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 3
earth. The only explanation of this, as far as he can see, is a shifting of these two big northern and southern masses towards the equator. Itis in this respect that he modifies the original theory of Wegener. It is not the continents themselves that are shifting, but only Laurasia and Gondwana, each as a whole and more or less untouched in its inte- rior. For the Teritiary period he regards the southern mass as the ac- tiveone. All continents of the southern hemisphere (and this includes also India) are shifting northwards, driving back the northern conti- nents and building up at their front the big range of mountains of the mediterranean system. The explanation of the east and west branches of this system is not so very conclusive. Staub speaks of an additional westward drift which has partly caused the great mountains bordering the western shores of North and South America; but of course there is
Fig. 1. Diagram and explanation of the alpine system of the earth. Black: The alpine orogen, with Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. (After R. STAUB.)
the resistance of the Pacific body which can cause the building up of mountains at its borders. For the bottom of the Pacific, Staub sup- ports the idea of Pickering that this is the place where the moon origi- nated; and, moreover, he favors Wegener’s idea that the bottom of the Pacific consists of heavier material which is generally supposed to underlie the lighter continents.
What is true for the last mountain-building period must also be true for the preceding ones. One of the main objections made against Wegener’s theory is that he disregards the older orogenic periods, chiefly of the Paleozoic. Staub avoids this objection and he draws the follow- ing picture that during the history of the earth there were repeated movements of the continental masses of the northern and southern hemisphere (Laurasia and Gondwana) alternately towards the equator
4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1
and the poles. He begins with Caledonian time which was a time of continental masses drifting towards the equator. This was followed by a drift towards the poles in post-Caledonian times and this again by a period of drifting equatorward in the late Paleozoic. Again shifted apart in Mesozoic times, the continents turn toward each other in the Tertiary and are now probably drifting apart again.
The force which drives the continents towards the equator if they are situated near the poles is simply the centrifugal force. The collision of the continents near the equator line causes the building up of moun- tains in the first place and in consequence a displacement of magma below the mountain zones. Thus the magma is forced to flow from the equator on both sides towards the poles and takes the continents with it. This will explain the force which causes the drifting of the conti- nents towards the poles in the intermediate periods between the great mountain-building phases.
Staub’s conception of the structure of the earth, thus based on the existence of the centrifugal force, west drift and the backflow of the magma is certainly fine and very simple, but I dare say it is perhaps too simple to be true. |
Another geologist trained in the study of the Alps is LeopoLtp Koper, professor of geology at the university of Vienna. While Staub came to conclusions that were more or less in agreement with ideas of Wegener and were at any rate opposed to any ideas pertaining to a shrinkage of the earth as the mountain building force, Kober claims quite the contrary.’ Like Staub he is looking for the con- nection of the Tertiary mountain ranges, but he traces these con- nections in an entirely different way. He starts with an examination of the mountain ranges of the Tertiary type and comes to the con- clusion that fundamentally all known Tertiary mountain ranges are two-sided, that their overthrusts extend northward and southward or eastward and westward, whatever the direction of the mountain range. Moreover he finds out that all Tertiary mountain ranges have a more or less circular arrangement around areas which are not affected by any kind of Tertiary orogenetic movement. He calls this central area the kratogen and the surrounding mountains make the orogenic ring. Kratogen plus orogenic ring build an orogen or a geotectonic unit. There are eight of these geotectonic units distin- guishable on the surface of the earth: Eurasia, Africa, Indo-Australia,
3 LEOPOLD Koper. Der Bau der Erde. (Berlin; 1st edition 1921, 2nd enlarged edi- tion 1929.)
JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 5
North America, South America, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Antarctica.
As an example of such an orogen I shall only give Kober’s picture of Africa. Continental Africa itself is the kratogen, largely unaffected by the Tertiary movements. The surrounding orogenic ring consists of the Atlas mountains in North Africa, the Appenines in Italy, some of the mountain ranges of the western and southwestern Balkan peninsula which continue into the ranges along the South coast of Asia Minor and into ranges in Persia. Here the trend of the mountains suddenly changes direction—as Kober assumes—and runs southward,
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Fig.2. The African orogen. (After L. KoBEr.)
thus striking out into the Indic. All the rest of the orogenic ring of Africa is submerged and consists partly of the eastern half of the mid- Atlantic ridge and of other submarine upliftings of the sea bottom around the African continent. This rather dangerous procedure of tracing structural connections under the sea is applied in a great deal of Kober’s constructions. What, however, is the meaning of the picture thus drawn? Kober is in favor of the idea of the contraction of the earth as the main force of mountain building. If the earth contracts, then a destruction and folding of the surface of the earth cannot take place in certain areas of
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1
resistance, these being stiffened by old intrusions or by former folding processes. The surface can only be folded between and around those areas, and this is the explanation of Kober’s picture. The kratogens are the areas of resistance which cannot be folded any more. As soon as the whole body of the earth contracts, these great blocks settle down a little, tending towards the center of the earth. Thus the space between them becomes smaller and the surface between, which is not yet stiff enough, can and must befolded. These are the orogenic rings which surround the kratogens. A similar process also took place in previous times of orogeny. Originally the kratogens were smaller and they grew to their present dimensions gradually in consequence of the gradual folding and stiffening of their borders.
If we look at the real background of these ideas, we will find some remarkable similarities to ideas expressed by R. T. CHAMBERLIN and R. RuEDEMANN as to the distribution of the original ancient continents, although much of the developments assumed by Kober are highly hypothetical and sometimes too much generalized. Kober’s aim is largely one of physiographical explanation rather than that of histori- cal consideration of the development of given surfaceforms. His ques- tion is, how to explain the present physiographical configuration of the earth’s surface mainly in the light of the latest mountain-building movements.
Another main defender of the theory of the contraction of the earth is Hans STILE, head professor of geology at the University of Gottin- gen. His book‘ is undoubtedly one of the most profound books ever written about structural questions. He has made a thorough exam- ination of all the existing literature of the world dealing with structural and particularly orogenetic questions. ‘Thus he came to the postula- tion of certain tectonic laws. |
The first one and certainly that which he regards as the main result of his studies is the law of orogenetic contemporaneity, which means that orogenic processes are restricted to certain short periods or phases as Stille calls them, and that at those periods orogeny is liable to take place with more or less worldwide distribution. ‘The times between these orogenic phases are absolutely free from any movements of that kind. Only epeirogenesis takes place. ‘The boundary between
4HANS STILLE. Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik. (Berlin, 1924.) Since Prof. ScHucHERT has given a long review of this book (Am. Jour. Sci. 12: 277-292. 1926), Stille’s ideas will be considered here only briefly. The multitude of facts and ideas laid down in his book cannot be adequately dealt with in a few sentences anyhow.
JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 7
epeirogenesis and orogenesis is drawn very sharply by Stille and accord- ing to him it is of much importance to distinguish between purely epeirogenetic and purely orogenetic times.
Thus in studying the orogenic movements of the past he establishes between 30 and 40 of those orogenic phases which are distributed in about equal amounts in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary.
Among the orogenic movements he distinguishes two kinds: first the Alpine type, consisting of folds, overfolds, and overthrusts; second the Germanic type, consisting of fault-fold mountains and block
ommme leitlinie der Alpiden. ecce Fore ger erktogenen u.meridjogenert
Fig. 3. The tectonic structure of Europe. (After H. STILue.)
mountains. Both are orogenic and both kinds of movements may occur at the same time in different regions during orogenic phases. Even Stille, however, cannot neglect the fact that there are sometimes orogenic movements during epeirogenic times, but he thinks they are of minor importance and calls them synepeirogenetic movements. On the other hand epeirogenic movements during orogenic times, also always of minor importance, are called synorogenic movements.
The law of the contemporaneity of orogenic forms expresses the fact that all kinds of orogenic movements may occur at the same time and
8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1
the law of the identity of orogenic force holds that the same force causes all kinds of orogeny. ‘This force is the contraction of the earth.
Like Kober, Stille claims that certain areas are more fit for orogeny than others and especially he thinks that a stiffening by former orog- enies prevents a certain area from being folded again. As soon as a region has experienced the Alpine type of orogeny with folding and overthursts, it can only be affected by the Germanic type in later orogenies. ‘Thus only the border regions of these stiffened blocks can be folded, but not the interior, and the result is the steady growth of the stiffened blocks which cannot be folded any more. This concep- tion is very similar to Kober’s ideas of the growing kratogens, but is more founded on historical considerations than Kober’s were.
How Stille came to the conclusion of the growing continental blocks may be illustrated by a picture of the structural conditions of Europe. There are the stiffened blocks of the Precambrian in the North as Archeurope (“Ureuropa’’), the Caldonian ranges folded in early paleozoic .times as Paleo-europe (‘‘Paleuropa’”’), Middle Europe, folded and stiffened in the late Paleozoic, as Meso-europe and finally the recently folded area around the Mediterranean sea as Neo-europe. Thus a steady growth of the European block during geologic times has taken place and there remains only one mobile area at the present time, the present Mediterranean sea. ‘This process of progressive folding of the borderlands is called by Stille the folding of the frames and plays a great role in his considerations. The question whether the orogenic zones are one-sided or two-sided is of minor importance to Stille. If the area affected by folding is very narrow then there would be a two- sided pressure. If this area is broad, each border will appear as a separate branch folded only to one side.
I cannot refer to the many details of Stille’s book and I have to omit even some of the more important questions touched upon by him. I may say a few words more about his definitions. If we speak, for instance, of a geosyncline, we think immediately of an area of more or less intensive folding after the depesition of sediments there. This, according to Stille, is a misconception and he defines a geosyncline as any depressed area of large extent with sinking tendency thus accumu- lating large amounts of sediments, regardless of its later development. There are a number of geosynclines on the earth which never have been folded or affected by any type of Alpine orogeny. ‘This is an impor- tant and decided step towards the liberation of the word “‘geosyncline”’ from the burden of partly or wholly wrong conceptions which it has carried now for decades.
JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 9
To summarize Stille’s opinions: tectonics is a function of the inten- sity of the tectonic force, of the capability of reaction of the material involved and in certain cases of particular local conditions. The only tectonic force is the contraction of the earth which does not take place steadily, but abruptly at certain phases; and every time the shrinkage of the earth causes worldwide orogenic movements. Thus for Stille the site of orogeny is the outer crust of the earth and the cause of orogeny are processes which pertain to the whole body of the earth. If subcrustal magmatic material is involved in orogenic processes, this can be only secondary. Stille neglects the importance of isostasy, as well as the magma; in fact, isostasy is hardly mentioned in his book.
The antithesis of these ideas is the basis for the most recent theory promoted in Germany by Erich HAARMANN, geologist of the Prussian Geological Survey. It is remarkable that in a comparatively short period after the appearance of Wegener’s revolutionary book, such a book, not less revolutionary and yet on entirely different suppositions
YY
j 7
Yj Yj “Yj CUM.
Wi) Y Yy Y Yy Fig. 4. The formation of a geotumor and free gliding. (After EH. Haarmann.)
has appeared.® Like Wegener, Haarmann abandons most of the conceptions formerly regarded as sure and irrefutable and enters into a discussion of the fundamental principles of our science. For him, the main force which causes diastrophism at the surface is the move- ment of the subcrustal magma. ‘This flows from one place to another, causing uplifting of the crust where it is accumulating and depressions where it is streaming away. ‘Therefore the influence of such magmatic movements upon the behavior of the outer crust causes the appearance of widespread up-and-down movements. Haarmann calls an uplifted area a geotumor, a depressed area a geodepression, terms which correspond largely with ‘“‘geoanticline’’ and ‘‘geosyncline.’’ Thus Haarmann is going a step farther than even Stille, who confined him- self to a redefinition of these old expressions. But in fact a geotumor is not exactly identical with geoanticline and a geodepression not exactly like a geosyncline as we shall see.
5 HRICH HAARMANN. Drie Oszillationstheorie. (Stuttgart, 1930.)
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1
The building of geotumors and geodepressions is a steady process which is always taking place somewhere. Haarmann seeks the cause of this eternal up and down, or rather of the movements of the sub- crustal magma which causes this, in oscillations of the axis of rotation of the earth which give rise to changes of the balance between the masses of the earth and thus force the masses to change their position.
One may however regard this as a doubtful explanation. It is not at all the main point with which the theory of Haarmann is concerned.
Another old conception abandoned by Haarmann is the strong dis- tinction made so far between epeirogenesis and orogenesis as two differ- ent kinds of movements due to two entirely different kinds of causing forces. He abandons the terms “‘epeirogenesis” and “‘orogenesis”’ and calls any kind of tectonic movements on the earth tectogenesis. The type of movements which we so far have considered, the upward and - downward oscillation of the surface of the earth constitute primary tectogenesis because these movements are the primary features with- out which all kinds of tectonic facts cannot be understood. Primary tectogenesis in the conception of Haarmann is only partly identical with epeirogenesis in the older sense.
The building of folded and overthrust mountain structures is the consequence of primary tectogenesis. All we know as folds, overfolds, overthrusts, faulting and similar processes is the result of gliding. No gliding can take place without an oblique base and therefore without preceding uplift, without primary tectogenesis. All these movements which eventually result in the building of faulted, folded, overthrust ranges constitute consequently secondary tectogenesis, which is in every case a gliding phenomenon and dependent upon the precedence of primary tectogenesis. Thus for the first time the attempt is made to connect causally the side-by-side existence of epeirogenetic and oro- genetic or rather vertical and horizontal movements.
This theory explains also the existence of tension areas on the back side of overthrust ranges. Moreover the appearance of tension has to be expected behind a sedimentary complex gliding downward from the top of an uplifted dome. In this way fissures, magmatic intrusions and voleanic activity on the opposite side of the direction of the movement are satisfactorily explained. Also the rather common appearance of an arrangement of the mountain ranges in arcs is to be understood in the light of this theory.
In accordance with the different kinds of folding structures, Haar- mann distinguishes several kinds of gliding. The first is free gliding (‘‘Freigleitung’’) which takes place in not yet entirely filled geodepres-
JAN. 4, 1931 TRICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 11
sions where the gliding is not hindered by any obstacles. This kind of gliding has taken place in all the late-Tertiary mountain ranges and has caused folds, overfolds, overthrusts and the arclike outline of many of the ranges.
Secondly, there is full-trough gliding (‘‘Volltroggleitung’’) which takes place in nearly filled geodepressions where not the whole sequence of sediments is able to glide, but only the upper strata, whereas com- pression with irregular movements and steep folds and faults appear in the deeper zones. Full-trough gliding may take place before free gliding and may thus add considerably to the complication of structures.
The third kind of gliding is fault gliding (‘‘Bruchgleitung’’) which depends upon the existence of a competent surface of the sedimentary series and an incompetent gliding basis at the bottom. The results are downward movements of larger coherent blocks and dislocation along usually steep faults.
The fourth kind depends upon some special conditions and is called squeeze gliding (‘‘Expressionsgleitung’’). It, applies to the only kind of secondary tectogenesis which does not take place as a downward but as an upward movement. Mobile members of the sedimentary series are squeezed and pressed up by the pressure of less plastic sediments. We see this process in deposits of clay, salt, coal, diatomite, ore and also sometimes in magmatic intrusions.
All these gliding processes take place in deeper zones, at least below sea level. The present height of the mountains is the result of later uplifting. Thus the former areas of geodepression have mostly as- sumed to-day the appearance of geotumors; on the other hand, the old geotumors in back of the present mountain ranges have to-day largely subsided and have become geodepressions and a new cycle of tectoge- netic activity is going on.
Surface features of the moon seem to support Haarmann’s ideas, the well known craters here being an equivalent to the geodepression of the earth.
Contrary to the view of Pickering and Wegener that the moon origi- nated where now the Pacific ocean lies, Haarmann believes that we have to look for the original place of the moon rather where is now the greatest accumulation of sial material—in Asia. At the time when the moon was detached from the earth, the then already existing conti- nental cores still had the ability to float and shift over the magmatic surface and filled up the hole left by the detachment of the moon’s body. Afterwards, shifting of the continents could no longer take
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1
place because it was prevented by the gradual cooling of the surface.
Some severe objections as to the possibility of application of Haar- mann’s ideas to some American problems have already recently been mentioned by C. R. LONGWELL‘ in a short review of Haarmann’s book. Objections certainly will also come from the side of European geolo- gists; but nevertheless nobody can and will doubt that Haarmann’s book on diastrophism must be regarded as one of the most stimulating ones of the present time.
It may be noted that Haarmann, to his own advantage, could have made more use of EK. O. Utricn’s Revision of the Paleozoic systems. Ulrich was the first one to consider oscillatory movements as the pri- mary feature of diastrophism, although he was more concerned with diastrophism as a factor in paleogeography. ‘This side of the problem has not been given so much attention in Haarmann’s book. The study of oscillatory movements in their combined effects on tectonics and paleogeography might prove one of the most promising efforts of future
geology.
BOTANY.—A new Limonium from Haiti. 8S. F. BLAKE, Bureau of Plant Industry.
One of the most interesting plants collected by Mr. and Mrs. nae C. Lronarp in their exploration of northwestern Haiti in 1928-29 is a species of sea-lavender (Limonium) which was found growing plenti- fully on the coral rocks and cliffs east of Bord du Mer, in the vicinity of Jean Rabel. No species of the genus is reported in Urban’s Flora Domingensis (1920-21), and only two species have hitherto been found in the Bermudan-Bahaman-Antillean region. These are Limonium lefroyr (Hemsl.) Britton, treated by Britton in the Flora of Bermuda as identical with L. carolinianum (Walt.) Britton but in the writer’s opinion a distinct species endemic in Bermuda,? and L. bahamense (Griseb.) Britton, a Bahaman endemic remote from any other de- scribed American species and most closely related to a group of the genus found in the Mediterranean region and southern Africa.? The plant from Haiti is closely related to L. bahamense and very similar to it in general appearance, but is well distinguished by its different bracts
6 Am. Jour. Sci. 20: 219-220. 19380.
1 Received November 22, 1930.
2See Blake, Rhodora 18: 54. 1916.
3 Grisebach briefly compared his species with ‘‘Statice caspia Willd.,’’ which it closely resembles in habit. If Boissier’s series Steirocladae and Hyalolepideae are to be distin-
guished, however, both L. bahamense and L. haitiense are to be referred to the series Steirocladae, not to the Hyalolepideae, to which ‘‘Statice caspia’’ belongs.
JAN. 4, 1931 BLAKE: NEW HAITIAN LIMONIUM 13
and calyx. In L. bahamense the third bract of the spikelet is glabrous; the calyx is glabrous at the oblique base and short-pilose on two of the ribs from base for about half their length, and sometimes similarly pilose on one or two other ribs for a short space near their middle; and the upper half of the ribs is glabrous. In the Haitian plant the third bract is rather densely short-pilose above; the calyx is barbate-pilose all around at base, pilose with decidedly longer hairs (than in L. baha- mense) on two of the principal ribs for about half their length and on the three other ribs near the middle, and similarly pilose to a greater or less extent on the very obscure intermediate ribs; and all five principal ribs are shortly pilosulous above the middle, sometimes nearly to the tip. The new plant may be called
Limonium haitiense Blake, sp. nov.
Inmonio bahamensi affine, differt bractea tertia sursum pilosula, calycis basi piloso-barbati costis 2 e basi ad medium sublonge pilosis, 3 prope medium pilosis, omnibus supra medium saepe paene ad apicem breviter pilosulis.
Perennial, glabrous but obscurely scurfy; root rather short, vertical, with horizontal branches; stems very numerous and entangled, about 20 cm. long, leafy only below, divergently alternate-branched, articulate, angled, densely pustulate, the lower branches sterile, tipped with bracts like those of stem, only the uppermost branches floriferous; leaves spatulate, 2-5 cm. long in- cluding petiole (this often twice as long as blade), 3-8 mm. wide, obtuse or acute, cuspidate, cuneate at base, fleshy, somewhat lepidote-scurfy, 1-nerved; bracts of stem deltoid, acute, about 1.5 mm. long, with thick-herbaceous body and rather narrow scarious margin, glabrous; spikes numerous, corymbosely panicled, recurving, about 8-12 mm. long, the spikelets 3-4-flowered, densely and distichously imbricate; outermost bract suborbicular-ovate, rounded, glabrous, 2—2.5 mm. long, with subherbaceous body and rather broad scarious margin, the margin about half as broad as the width of the body; secondary bract hyaline, broadly and shallowly emarginate, about 1.7 mm. long; tertiary bract obliquely obovate in side view (suborbicular when flattened), rounded, rather densely spreading-pilosulous on upper half, 4.5 mm. long, with thick- herbaceous body and broad scarious margin (about 1 mm. wide); bracteoles elliptic-oblong, obtuse, glabrous, about 3 mm. long, hyaline throughout, the brownish costa evident only toward base or to above the middle; pedicels glabrous, 0.7 mm. long or less; calyx funnelform, 4-4.2 mm. long, whitish or lavender-tinged below, pilose-barbate all around at the oblique base, pilose from base to middle on 2 principal ribs, pilose near middle on the remaining principal ribs, pilose on one of the very indistinct intermediate ribs throughout its length and on the remainder at their tips, and very shortly pilosulous on the 5 principal ribs from middle often nearly to apex; calyx lobes deltoid, obtuse, about 0.5 mm. long, the intermediate teeth obsolete; petals apparently lavender. |
Hait1: Common on coral rocks, shore cliffs east of Bord du Mer, vicinity of Jean Rabel, Dept. Nord-Ouest, 6 March 1929, HE. C. & G. M. Leonard 13786 (type no. 1,452,380, U.S. Nat. Herb.) ; rocky cliffs east of Bord du Mer, 5 Feb. 1929, Leonard & Leonard 12881; dry coral rock, sea bluff east of Bord du Mer, 5 Feb. 1929, Leonard & Leonard 12889.
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 21, No. 1
BOTANY.—Fie new grasses from Colombia Jason R. SWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by A. S. Hitcu- COCK.)
Among the grasses collected by E. P. Kiniie and ALBERT C. SmirH in Colombia in 1926-27, four species are described as new. The fifth was collected by W. A. ARcHER in June, 1930, in Department Antioquia.
Chusquea tuberculosa Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi dense tuberculosi, 6 mm. crassi, nodis pubescentibus vel villosis; vaginae papillosae; ligula minuta; laminae culmorum basi cordatae, 9-10 cm. longae, 3 cm. latae, ramorum fasciculatae minores, ovatae vel lanceolato- ovatae, glabrae, 2-3 cm. longae, 4-10 mm. latae, marginibus scabris; paniculae patentes, 7-10 cm. longae, 5-6 cm. latae; ramis divergentibus, dense pub- escentibus; spiculae appressae, 6-7 mm. longae; glumae obsoletae vel minutae; lemmata sterilia duo, subaequalia, 5 mm. longa; lemma fertile acutum, ie nervium, 6 mm. longum.
Culms woody and vine-like, solid, very densely and prominently tubercu- late, more or less pubescent or villous at the nodes, as much as 6 mm. thick, bearing fascicles of sterile or flowering branches at the nodes, 5-30 cm. long; sheaths papillose-hispid to nearly smooth; ligule minute; blades of the main culm cordate-clasping, 9-10 cm. long, 3 cm. wide, those of the fascicled branches reduced, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, scarcely cordate, 2-8 cm. long, 4-10 mm. wide, all the blades smooth on both surfaces, scabrous on the mar- gins; panicles open, 7-10 em. long, 5-6 cm. wide, the branches stiffly spreading, the axis and branches densely soft-pilose; spikelets short pediceled, appressed, 6-7 mm. long; glumes obsolete; sterile lemmas two, subequal, 3- -nerved, 5 mi. long; fertile lemma acute, 7-nerved, 6 mm. long.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,353,497, collected on the edge of woods between California and Vetas, alt. 2500 m., Department Santander, Colombia, January 15-22, 1927, by E. P. Kiturp and ALBrrt C. Smirx (no. 18005).
Known only from the type collection. The prominently tuberculate culms are characteristic.
Neurolepsis mollis Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi robusti, erecti, 1.5-4.5 m. alti; vaginae glabrae, in ore fimbriatae; ligula 1-2 cm. longa; laminae planae, 20-75 cm. longae, 2—4 cm. latae, petio- latae; panicula angusta, stricta, 0.45-1.5 m. longa, ramis pubescentibus, an- guste ascendentibus, superioribus approximatis, inferioribus remotis; spiculae valde immaturae, 2 mm. longae, 3-florae, flosculis duobus inferioribus imper- fectis; glumae subaequales, obtusae, quam spicula duplo breviores; lemmata firma, acuta vel cuspidata, scaberula.
Culms robust, erect from short knotty rhizomes, 1.5-4.5 m. tall; sheaths smooth, glabrous, at least the lower ones long-fimbriate at the mouth; blades flat, narrowed toward both ends, 20-75 em. long, 2—4 cm. wide, sparsely pilose above, smooth below, scabrous on the margins, the bases of at least the lower
1 Received October 5, 1930.
JAN. 4, 1931 SWALLEN: NEW COLOMBIAN GRASSES 15
ones indurate and petiole-like, much narrower than the mouth of the sheath; ligule membranaceous, brownish, more or less lacerate above, 1-2 cm. long; panicles narrow, strict, 0.45 to more than 1.5 m. long, the spikelike branches appressed or narrowly ascending, the upper ones short and approxi- mate, the lower distant, as much as 20 cm. long, these bearing rather distant fascicles of appressed branchlets, both the main axis and the branches densely and softly pubescent; spikelets (all immature) about 2 mm. long, three-flow- ered, the upper floret fertile, the lower two florets sterile; first and second glumes subequal, obtuse, more or less apiculate, about half as long as the spikelet; lemmas firm in texture, acute or minutely cuspidate, scaberulous.
Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,648, collected in woods in the mountains east of Las Vegas, Department of Santander, Colombia, alt. 3000-3300 m., December 20-21, 1926, by E. P. Kinurp and ALBERT C. SMITH (no. 15830).
The only other specimen of this species seen is K1iiip and Smits no. 20699, collected at Paramo del Hatico, alt. 2900 m., Department Norte de Santander, Colombia. As both specimens are immature the floral measurements of mature plants may be somewhat larger than those given. The soft dense pubescence on the axis and branches of the panicle is characteristic.
Muhlenbergia erectifolia Swallen, sp. nov.
Perennis caespitosa; culmi erecti, glabri, 15-20 cm. alti; folia basi aggre- gata; vaginae glabrae vel scaberulae; ligula acuta, 3-5 mm. longa; laminae erectae, rigidae, teretes, scabrae, pungentes, 5-10 cm. longae, basi quam vaginae angustiores; panicula angusta, 5-6 em. longa, vix laminis longior; spiculae appressae, pedicellis crassis, 1-4 mm. longis; glumae aequales, trun- catae, 1-1.3 mm. longae; lemma 2.5 mm. longum, infra pubescens supra scabrum; arista erecta, crassa, scabra, 3-5 mm. longa.
Densely tufted perennial; culms erect, 15-20 cm. tall, glabrous; leaves mostly crowded toward the base; sheaths smooth or somewhat scabrous; ligule membranceous, acute, 3-5 mm. long; blades erect, rigid, terete, scabrous, pungently pointed, narrower than the sheaths at the base, 5-10 cm. long; panicles narrow, erect, scarcely exceeding the blades, 5-6 cm. long, rather few- flowered, the branches appressed; spikelets appressed to the branches, the pedicels comparatively stout, 1-4 mm. long; glumes equal, 1-1.3 mm. long, truncate, more or less erose, tinged with bronze and purple; lemma 2.5 mm. long, somewhat pubescent below, scabrous toward the summit, tapering into a stout erect scabrous awn 3-5 mm. long.
Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium no. 1,353,062, collected on Paramo de Santurbin, near Vetas, alt. 3,950-4,160 m., Department Santander, Colombia, January 17, 1927, by E. P. Kiture and ALBrErt C. SMITH (no. 17470).
Known only from the type collection.
The short terete, pungent blades are unlike those of any other species of this genus. , Panicum longiculme Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi graciles, erecti vel decumbentes, ad nodos inferiores radicantes, 125 em. longi, pilosi vel papilloso-pilosi, nodis barbatis; vaginae papilloso-pilosae;
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1
ligula 1-2 mm. longa; laminae 2—5.5 cm. longae, 3-5 mm. latae, pubescentes, marginibus scabris; panicula 5 cm. longa, 4.5 cm. lata, ramis patentibus, axillis villosis; spiculae 2.4-2.6 mm. longae, pilosae; gluma prima acuta, 1—1.2 mm. longa.
Culms slender, wiry, erect or long-decumbent at the base and rooting at the lower nodes, as much as 125 cm. long, pilose or papillose-pilose, the nodes mostly densely retrorsely bearded; sheaths much shorter than the internodes, papillose-pilose; ligule hairy, 1-2 mm. long; blades flat 2-5.5 em. long, 3-5 mm. wide with a white, scabrous, cartilaginous margin, softly pubescent on both surfaces; panicles few flowered, 5 cm. long, nearly as broad as long, the branches mostly widely spreading, the axis pilose; spikelets 2.4—2.6 mm. long, sparsely pubescent; first glume acute, 1—1.2 mm. long, |-nerved; fruit pointed, equaling the second glume and sterile lemma.
Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,444,529, collected in moun- tains above Bello, Quebrada del Ato, Department Antioquia, Colombia, June 17, 1930, by W. A. ARcHER (no. 160).
This species is allied to P. venezuelae Hack., but differs in having spikelets evenly distributed in the panicle, and fruit as long as the second glume and sterile lemma. ;
Ichnanthus angustifolius Swallen, sp. nov.
Probabiliter perennis; culmi graciles, glabri vel pubescentes, basi decum- bentes radicantes, 110 cm. longi, internodis inferioribus brevibus, superioribus elongatis; vaginae pilosae vel papilloso-pilosae internodos aequantes vel 2-3-plo breviores; ligula obsoleta; laminae sublineares, acuminatae, pilosae, basi subcordatae, 7-9 cm. longae, 3-5 mm. latae; panicula longe exserta, 8 cm. longa, ramis ascendentibus vel patentibus, pilosis; spiculae 3.5 mm. longae, pilosae, appressae, solitariae vel binae; gluma prima acuta vel acuminata 1.8-3.5 mm. longa; gluma secunda acuta, lemma sterile aequans; lemma sterile obtusum; lemma fertile 2.4 mm. longum, basi appendicibus obsoletis.
Probably perennial; culms slender, straggling, long-decumbent at the base and with stilt roots at some of the nodes, more than 110 cm. long, glabrous, or sparsely pubescent, the lower internodes short, the upper ones elongate; lower sheaths as long as the internodes, the upper ones 1/3-1/2 as long as the internodes, pilose or papillose-pilose, especially on the margin and the collar; ligule nearly obsolete; blades linear or linear-lanceolate, acuminate, subcordate 7-9 cm. long, 3-5 mm. wide, pilose on both surfaces; panicle long-exserted, 8 cm. long, the axis and the ascending or spreading branches mostly short- pilose; spikelets 3.5 mm. long, more or less pilose or papillose-pilose, solitary or in pairs, appressed to the branches, the pedicel of the lower one of a pair less than 1 mm., that of the upper about 3 mm. long; first glume 3-nerved, acute or acuminate, from half as long to as long as the spikelet; second glume and sterile lemma equal, 5-nerved, the glume acute, the sterile lemma obtusish; fertile lemma 2.4 mm. long, the wings reduced to scars.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,267, collected in woods, on the northern slope of Mesa de los Santos, alt. 1000-1500 m., Department Santander, Colombia, Dec. 11-15, 1926, by E. P. Kizure and ALBERT C. SMITH (no. 15385).
Known only from the type collection. | The long-decumbent culms with stilt roots and narrow blades are typical.
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STATISTICS.—Some elementary properties of moments-of-frequency distributions. A. J. Lorxa, New|York, N. Y.
In the course of a special investigation it became necessary to develop certain simple theorems regarding the moments of frequency distribution. It may be found convenient for others, as it was for the writer, to have a record of these theorems and their proof collected together in one place. Although some of them may seem evident almost at sight, one is, nevertheless, better satisfied when a definite proof is at hand.
1. Definition.—Given any frequency distribution z = f(x), we may form the function x"z = x" f(x) and regard this as a new distribution F(x). We may, further, determine the mean of this new distribution
ates i F(x)dx : i x2+1 f(x)dx oe 9 ‘ F (x)dx i‘ x2 {(x)dx Ra
2. Theorem.—The mean x, defined as above moves in the direction of increasing x as n increases, provided that f(x) > o fora < x <b. That is, under this condition, xX, > Xp_1
Proof.—By definition
Rigi = ty x? F(x)dx (2)
R. = { X mace (3)
'‘ Received November 12, 1930. 17
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
= ie F(x)dx (4) Ri = [x P@dx ("y PQday (5) = ie i xy F(x) F(y)dydx (6)
Raber
HAL [rey Fo aydx + ("[ Fox F@ayaxt (7
2 (° (ce + ¥9 FW Fo ayds 8)
By comparison of equations (6) and (8) it is seen that for every term xy F(x) F(y)dydx in R?, there is a corresponding term
> (+ y?) Ft) FG) dydx in Re Re
Now x and y being both real, we have
j@ — 9) 50 (9) x? —-2xy +y>0 (10) BOG ae) Ss oy (11)
the equal sign applying only in the special case that x = y. Hvery term in (8) being positive and greater than or at least equal to the corresponding term in (6), it follows at once that
Re keen (12)
the equality sign being here excluded, since in the double integral, in general, x ¥ y. The result (12) may also be written Raced J
2 Ws Rae
he@siXn gy = Xa (13)
which proves the theorem. 3. Theorem.—The mean x, of the distribution x" f(x) approaches the value b as n increases, if f(x) = O for all values of x greater than b. Proof.—From the theorem (2) it is clear that x, must either increase indefinitely as n increases, or else must tend continually to an upper limit.
JAN. 19, 1931 LOTKA: MOMENTS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 19
We may split up the expression for x,
b ie x+1 f(x)dx i x"+1 f(x)dx pee eal eae Se 4) i x" f(x)dx ii x" f(x)dx + i x2 {(x)dx a a p 2) ee es (15)
Now it is clear that for any assigned value of p < b, we can always, by choosing n large enough, make the ratios I.,/I,» and Jap»/Jp» less than any assigned positive valuee. Hence, in the limit, for sufficiently large n, we have :
b | x2+1 f(x)dx Xx, = Ipp BE ZINE Bs PIR (16)
b ie ii mt fds p
where p may be made (less than but) as nearly equal to b as we please. But in the limit, as p approaches b, (16) reduces simply to
b= +1 f(b)dx pm ptf) dx oe which proves the theorem.
4. Theorem.—The median between the limits x = a and x = bof . the distribution F(x) = x" f(x) moves in the direction of increasing X as N increases.
Proof.—The median é of F(x) is defined by the relation
£ b \ F(x)dx = i F(x)dx (18)
It follows at once that
: b ii x F(x)dx < \ x F(x)dx (19)
since each term on the right of the inequality (19) is obtained from the corresponding term in the right hand member of the equation (18) by multiplication with a value of x > &, while each term on the left is
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
similarly obtained [from the corresponding term in the left hand member of the equation (18) by multiplication with a value of x < ¢. b
In order, therefore, to divide the integral _ XE(x)dx into equal parts,
we must add something to the first inicenal of the inequality (19), and deduct something from the second. But this means that in the defining equation for the median of x F(x)
{x F(x)dx = (x F(x)dx
we must haven > é, that is, the median of x F(x) lies “to the right of”’ that of F(x). This proves the theorem.
5. Theorem.—The mode of the distribution F(x) = x" f(x), where x and f(x) both assume only positive values, moves in the direction of increasing X as N increases.
Proof.—The mode of F(x) is defined by
dF(x) _ be
while that of x F(x) is defined by
~ GF o&) ss eee F(x) = 0 di i F(x) (ae x
Now according to hypothesis, F(x) and x are both positive. Hence the mode of x F(x) falls at a point at which the curve for F(x) has a downward slope, that is, to the right of its mode. ‘This proves the theorem, for unimodal frequency curves lying entirely in the plus x field.
If the curve has two or more modes, we can divide it into sections having only one mode and then apply to each section the argument set forth above.
Summary.—lf f(x) is a frequency distribution and if both x and f(x) assume only positive values, then the mean, median and mode of x" f(x) all move in the direction of increasing x as n increases.
JAN. 19, 1931 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 21
MATHEMATICS.—On Fermat's Last Theorem, III’. Vau. Mar. SPuNAR, Chicago, Ill. (Communicated by Epagar W. WooLaARD.) In the attempt to show that
Dy tee SS ce leh che (1)
n being any positive integer, cannot be solved in integers all different from zero if n > 2, it is sufficient to consider the case in which 2g, y, z are relatively prime and n is an odd prime } = 3.2. One method of attack that has been employed is to exclude certain values for either by more or less general criteria or by direct computation; and some results obtained by this method have been presented in the two preceding papers? by the present writer.
It is the object of the present paper to extend the results of Dickson‘ and of Beeger®, who have, respectively, proved Fermat’s Last Theorem forn < 7000 andn < 14,000. It has been established that any value of \ for which
is satisfied by integers not divisible by \, must satisfy eas ek MGUY Nie hehe ue, (3)
ror) — 2°; 37: 58: 11 and 17°; and also 7, 13, and 19 if X = 5 (mod 6), l.e.,\ = 64 — 1.1° Thus, (2) is impossible in integers prime to d for all prime values of \ that do not satisfy (3) for all the preceding values ofr. It may be noted that (3) will likewise be satisfied by the product of these numbers, each raised to any power, Viz.,
90.30.5°-74- 115-13! -17 9-194,
in which a, 6, c,...,2 may each be any positive integer or zero unless \ = 6k + 1 in which case we must taked =f =h=0. The follow- ing generalization of these results appears to be new:
1 Received June 30, 1930.
2 CARMICHAEL, Theory of Numbers, p.91. New York, 1914. ’ This JOURNAL, 18: 389-395. 1928;19: 395-401. 1929.
4 Quar. Jour. Math. 40: 27-45. 1908.
5 Mess. Math. (2), 55: 17-26. 1925.
§ WizeFeERIcH, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 136: 293-302. 1909. 7 MrrRIMANOFF, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 139: 309-324. 1911. 8 VANDIVER, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 144: 314-318. 1914.
° FROBENIUS, Sitz. Berl., 1914, pp. 653-681.
10 FROBENIUS, loc. cit.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
Theorem.—If, in M = m > + N, 2 be an odd prime, m any integer prime to A, and M and WN both satisfy (3), then this value for \ is excluded from (2)..
The proof requires the following Lemma: If r is an integer, not zero, prime to any odd prime 2 2 8, and satisfies (8), then obviously [md — (md + 1)]*-! = 1 (mod 22), whence, upon expanding by the bi- nomial theorem, we find that — (A — 1) md (mA + r)*-? + (md41r)*"1 = 1 (mod 22); consequently, it is impossible that
(mn £7)" = 1 Gnod 45.2 ae (4)
Thus, no value of \ which satisfies (4) can satisfy (8), nor, therefore, (2).
Now, if we put meh = VME UNG oo se (5)
where , m, M, N, are all prime to each other, and N is any number r that satisfies (3), then since mA = (mA +r) + r,wehaveM = md +7; and if also
d
Morea (mod: \2) 7) 0 (6) 1.e., Gah oe = A Gmod Ina
then by the Lemma, \ cannot satisfy (3) nor (2). That is, if m\ can be expressed as the sum or difference of two numbers both of which satisfy (8), then Fermat’s Theorem is true for this value of \. E. g,, taking m = 1 for convenience, we have 7013 = 7-10? + 138, whence Fermat's Theorem holds for } = 7013; similarly 7019 = 7-108 + 19, 7027 = 52-172 — 2-32-11, and so on. The writer is now engaged in constructing tables of such results which will prove Fermat’s Theorem for \ < 50,000. The result
2rA+1 Go. < Dy <2
established in the first paper™ shows that for \ = 50,021, the solutions, if any exist, must be such that 10 <7 < DO) KB
1! This JOURNAL, 18: 395. 1928.
JAN. 19, 1931 FISHER: NEW BEETLE FROM COSTA RICA 23
The Theorem of the present paper likewise holds form = m’ \*, if m’ be prime to d, and M and WN are both perfect \*-th powers. The more general identity + md = (rmd +n) ¥[(r — 1) mA +n] may also be used; e.g., \ = 8311 = 27-11-17 — 5& = 23,936-15,625 is in the form \ = (8A — p) — (24 — p) ordA = (24 + n) — (A +n) where foie — op — 1000, n — 7al4.
The writer has obtained a proof, to be published shortly, that (2) has no solution in integers at allif \ = 6k — 1 and xyz =4 0 (moda)
ENTOMOLOGY .—A new longhorn beetle from Costa Rica (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).1 W.S8. FisHer, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by Haroip MorRISON.)
Cosmotoma fasciata, new species
Elongate, and moderately robust; head and antennae reddish-brown, the latter becoming darker toward apices; pronotum reddish-brown anteriorly, becoming dark-brown on basal half; scutellum and elytra black, the latter with a broad, transverse, reddish-brown fascia in front of middle, which is more or less interrupted at the sutural margins, and the surface ornamented with white pubescent markings; beneath brownish-black, with the legs dark reddish-brown.
Head with the front quadrate, feebly convex, slightly concave between the antennal tubercles, which are slightly elevated, the surface densely, finely punctate, and sparsely clothed with long, recumbent, yellow hairs; eyes rather small, very deeply emarginate, with the upper lobes very small and narrow; antenna considerably longer than body, the fourth joint armed on the upper surface with a thick tuft of long, black hairs, the second, third, and fifth joints with thin pencils of hairs at their tips, and clothed with a few long hairs similar to the other joints, first joint slightly expanded toward apex, about three-fourths as long as the third joint, which is slightly shorter than the fourth, the following joints becoming gradually shorter toward tip of antenna.
Pronotum slightly wider than long, strongly constricted along base and anterior margin, the sides with a slight conical protuberance near middle; disk with a large obtuse tubercle on each side of middle; surface densely, obsoletely punctate, a few large, coarse punctures in the transverse apical and basal constrictions, rather densely clothed with long, recumbent, yellow pub- escence. Scutellum elongate, finely, densely punctate, and rather densely clothed along margins with recumbent, white pubescence.
Elytra nearly three times as long as pronotum, slightly wider than it at base; humeral angles broadly rounded and feebly elevated; sides nearly paral- lel to apical fourth, then arcuately narrowed to the apices, which are obliquely truncate internally; surface densely, obsoletely punctate, with a few scattered coarse punctures intermixed, rather densely clothed with short, black pub- escence, which has a pinkish tinge in certain lights, with numerous long, erect, stiff, black hairs, and each elytron ornamented with white pubescent markings
1 Received November 21, 1930.
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
as follows: three narrow, transversely oblique fasciae on the transverse red- dish-brown area in front of middle, the fasciae more or less connected toward the sutural margin, and a narrow transverse fascia near apex, and armed with a median basal crest, which is clothed with long, black hairs.
Body beneath densely, obsoletely punctate, and rather densely clothed with short, recumbent, silvery-white pubescence; last abdominal segment rather coarsely punctate toward apex, and clothed with long, semierect hairs.
Length, 5-7.5 mm.; width, 2-3.2 mm.
Type locality — Hamburg farm, Costa Rica.
Type and paratype.—Cat No. 43174, United States National Museum.
Paratypes.—Collection Ferd. Nevermann.
Described from four examples (one type), all of which were collected at the type locality, April 2, 1925, by Ferd. Nevermann.
This species is very closely allied to rubella described by Bates from the Amazon region, but it differs from that species in having the sides of the pronotum more obtusely angulated, dorsal tubercles on the pronotum more feebly elevated, base and apex of the elytra entirely black, and the elytra not so abruptly angulated at the apices.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES |
THE ACADEMY 235TH MEETING
The 235th meeting of the AcapEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 P.M. on Thursday, November 20, 1930. President Bowie introduced as the speaker Dr. ApotpH H. Scuuutz of the Johns Hopkins Medical School, who delivered the seventh of the series of lectures upon origin and evolution. About 175 persons were present.
Program: ApoteH H. Scuuutz: Man’s place among the primates. (Il- lustrated with lantern slides.)—All the investigators agree that man must be assigned to the order of primates but there exist widely differing claims in regard to man’s exact place within this mammalian order. The evidence supporting these claims includes a wide variety of specialities ranging from fetal membranes to blood-serum reactions. Skulls and teeth of primates have been studied in much greater detail than other bodily parts, adult animals and men have been examined much more frequently and thoroughly than physio- logical studies.
In the address some of the less widely known evidence was used for the reconstruction of the primate family tree and of the exact place thereon of the human branch. The author discussed chiefly growth, the skeleton and varia- tions, with lantern slides illustrating a very heterogenous mass of data to emphasize the necessity of representing a pedigree as a compromise between the results from many different fields of investigation.
The theme that man has a definite place among the primates was developed and illustrated by lantern slides showing size, growth, the recapitulation theory, tail, nasal cartilages, shoulders and neck, nipples, arm proportions, limb proportions in general, variations; skeleton: spine, sternum, pelvis and foot. This was followed by a comparative study of hair and its distribution in the group.
JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 25
The data were marshalled to show that man is not only a member of the mammalian order of primates but resembles most closely the large anthropoid apes, which must have had one and the same ancestor with man; that in many respects man is still more primitive than his simian cousins, which have be- come more highly specialized in regard to the conditions of the spine, the sternum, etc.; that in other respects man has departed farther from the com- mon ancestral condition than have the apes, but the difference between man and some apes is rarely greater than the difference in the same feature between that ape and some other ape. Man’s greatest specializations exist chiefly in those parts which had to be changed with (and by) the assumption of an erect posture. This is clearly evident in man’s pelvis, foot, skull, and length of lower limb. .
Many evolutionary changes consist in the loss of a structure which pre- viously had served a definite purpose. Examples were cited: the third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, and loss of the thumb in monkeys in America and Africa. Sometimes new characters appear, such as extreme webbing between the second and third toes. Some evolutionary changes are observed right now if we examine large series of individuals, such as loss of third molar. The same evolutionary trend prevails independently in the American spider monkey, among which 15% lack 3rd molars. This was shown in slides on variations in monkey skulls, human fetuses, relative ear sizes, etc., which are variations that run in families (are hereditary). Such variations are al- ready present before birth. EXverywhere we turn we find ample material for selection in the form of individual variations of a congenital nature.
The author concludes that 99 out of every 100 variations are indifferent in regard to value to their owner. Most variations have no selective significance by themselves. Nevertheless, evolutionary changes can occur with such indifferent but selected variations as stepping stones. This is possible and even unavoidable because different variations of one and the same body are correlated to one another as clearly shown by the modern study of human constitutions. We have learned to recognize distinct constitutional types by their definite combinations of variations. One type, for instance, has long limbs, a slender trunk and little body hair on the chest and limbs. Many investigations have demonstrated that one type is more susceptible to certain diseases than the other type. These diseases are clearly selective agencies, which select not only relative immunity to a disease but with it relative length of limb and amount of hair. Weare just beginning to realize that some constitutional types thrive better in a tropical climate than do other types. There are many other factors which might select the different constitutions. Such types are not restricted to man but have been demonstrated among primitive monkeys, shot in their native jungles. Malaria and other diseases are known to be shockingly prevalent among these monkeys. It is not at all unlikely, though not yet proved, that different constitutions in monkeys, as in man, are differently susceptible to some diseases and that in this way one type may gradually become eliminated from the population of the species. In this way we can understand that variations in limb length, ear size, hairiness, etc. become selected not because they are directly advantageous but because they happen to be combined with physiological variations, which cause a different resistance to disease, climate, or diet.
“The problem of man’s place among primates includes two separate ques- tions: (1) What is this place? and (2) How did man come to occupy such a place? The first question I have tried to answer on the basis of careful
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 2
comparisons between man and other primates, that is, by the approved taxonomic methods. Such comparisons force us to the conclusion that man is most nearly related to the anthropoid apes. The second question is far more complicated and difficult to answer and one has to deal mostly with possibilities and probabilities. I have given you ample evidence for the con- - clusion that evolution is not only a theory but a philosophy without which no student of nature can understand nature. We cannot escape the evidence from all scientific observations that species have changed in the past and are continuing to change today, and that man does not form an exception to this rule. I have not been able, however, to tell you definitely how and why these changes take place. A great deal more work will have to be done before we can prove the exact working method or the many methods of evolution. We can demonstrate with certainty that there exists a constant and abundant supply of variations from which to select new forms. ‘The working of these selections is still a matter of speculation and an inducement for future intensive research.” (Author’s abstract.)
CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
467TH MEETING
The 467th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, October 29, 1930, President G. R. MAns- FIELD presiding.
Informal communications: Davip WHITE reviewed the autumn meeting of the National Academy of Sciences. He called attention to papers by Davis on limestone caves, SETCHELL on the activity of algae in limestone formation, MILLIKAN on the radioactivity of glacial drifts and the rate of elevation of the Hudson Bay country and by LyMann on pre-Cambrian bacteria. Discussed by Messrs. THompson and CookgE.
R. C. WELLS announced a series of round-table discussions of geochemistry which are being held fortnightly in the Chemical Laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey.
Program: Curt TxEIcHERT, University of Freiburg, Germany: Recent German theories. (A paper on this subject appears in this JouURNAL21: 1-12.)
Discussed by G. R. MANSFIELD.
E. G. Zres: The geologist and analyst—a study in coéperation.—A plea was entered for better codperation between geologist and analyst. Evidence was presented which brought out the wide variation in results obtained when a synthetic silicate was submitted for analysis to a number of chemists actively engaged in such work. The composition of this material had previously been accurately determined both by synthesis of the pure materials and by analysis of the final product. It was further shown that accurate chemical and phys- ical methods were available for determining the various constituents.
Much of the difficulty is caused by the fact that analysis can quite easily become a deadly routine, utterly devoid of creative possibilities if the analyst neither has nor is given an interest in the application of his results to the prob- lem which is being investigated. A great amount of poor work is being done by the chemist and accepted by the geologist because there is no mutual under- standing of their respective problems.
JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 27
Analysis at its best is a science, an art, and a state of mind. Following RUSKIN, it is a science because we should not talk before we know, an art because we should not talk before we do, and it is a state of mind because the analyst should not undertake an analysis unless he feels confident that his methods and his ability will serve the purpose in hand. The geologist should know how to appraise the analyst and how to evaluate the results. Further- more, the geologist must know the requirements of his problem so that the analyst can determine whether the required accuracy is within the limitations of his methods. Such coéperation will encourage the analyst to search for more accurate methods in the event that the present ones are too crude for the purpose in hand. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. WELLS and RuBEY.
468TH MEETING
The 468th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, November 12, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding.
Informal communications: A. C. SPENCER called attention to a probable rock glacier in a small tributary of Difficult Run which joins the Potomac River from the west a short distance below Great Falls.
Discussed by Messrs. Mrertizx and THOMPSON.
C. W. Cooke: Radial calcite concretions in marine beds in Georgia. Several years ago, while examining the section of the Marks Head mar] at Porters Landing, Savannah River, Georgia, I found a hard lump which at first glance appeared to be a fossil organism, perhaps a coral or a calcareous alga. I broke it open in order to examine the internal structure and was surprised to find that it consists of a mass of radiating acicular crystals. Some of the crystals appear to be curved, but the apparent curvature is probably due to the interpolation of shorter crystals toward the periphery rather than to actual bending of any one crystal. The crystals are crossed by unevenly spaced con- centric white to brownish color bands which are not everywhere at right angles to the longer axes of the crystals but which follow the somewhat uneven con- tour of the surface of the nodule. The mineral effervesces freely with hydro- chloric acid and, according to Mr. Nouan, has the optical properties of calcite.
Although the nodule was lying loose on the bank of the river it had evi- dently fallen from the fine gray sand of the Marks Head marl which contains calcareous nodules as large as 2 feet in diameter. Most of the nodules show no evidence from the outside that their structure is crystalline, but all that I broke open proved to consist of radial crystals. The one exhibited had evi- dently been rolled around enough to fracture the ends of the crystals and produce a rough surface somewhat like that of a calcareous alga. Calcareous concretions have been known at Porters Landing since at least as long ago as 1908, when EARLE SLOAN described the section there, but nobody seems to have noticed anything unusual about them.
There are similar concretions in the Upper Cretaceous Eutaw formation at Ochillee, Chattahoochee County, Georgia. Both the Eutaw formation and the Marks Head marl are marine. (Author’s abstract.)
A. C. SPENCER showed radial concretions of pyrite, barite and a carbophos- phate and suggested that the carbophosphate concretion was pseudomorphous after barite.
S. F. TurRNER exhibited a concretion of radiating crystals of aragonite from the Cave of the Winds, Colorado; a chalcedony replacement of aragonite
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
crystals from the gravels of the Canadian River in Texas; and aragonite crystals from the Pierre shale of Colorado.
The communications on concretions were discussed ey Messrs. WHITE, REsSER, GOLDMAN and SCHALLER.
W. R. Atwoop showed three specimens from a single log found in the Petrified Forest of Arizona. ‘The specimen from one end was a silica replace- ment, but the specimen from the other end was lignite. The intermediate portion of the log was partly silica and partly lignite. Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, GOLDMAN, and SPENCER.
Program: C.H. Dane: Uncompahgre Plateau and related structural features.— The Uncompahgre Plateau is a topographic elevation closely coincident with an anticlinal uplift, oval in shape, some 90 miles in length with its longer axis extending northwest to southeast. Most of the uplift is within the State of Colorado but the plunging north end extends into Grand County, Utah. The folding occurred at the close of the Cretaceous period and the pre-Cambrian granitic and metamorphic core of the Plateau uplift acted as a bulwark, the direction of which is reflected by parallel smaller folds to the southwest. The Plateau is located along the western margin of an ancient land mass which ex- tended southeastward through western Colorado into northern New Mexico during Pennsylvanian, Permian, and lower Triassic time. The northern limit of this old land area is concealed beneath the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments of the Uinta Basin. An estimate of the volume of clastic sediments derived from the erosion of this land suggests that it may have been a mountain range, the crest of which stood at least a mile above the margins although the land was less than one hundred miles in width. The coarseness of the conglomer- atic sediments deposited near the margins suggests a rugged topography com- patible with the probable great height of the old range. Although the range was peneplained before or during upper Triassic time, sediments deposited during the Jurassic period thin toward the area of the old land and are missing over parts of it. The area was completely submerged by the marine invasion of the Upper Cretaceous, but the post-Cretaceous folding which formed the Uncompahgre Plateau anticline followed the trend of the old land and uplifted part of its western margin. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. W. R. ATwoop, SPENCER, BAKER and GOLDMAN.
W.R. Atwoop: Mid-Tertiary glacial deposits in southern France.—In the vicinity of Mt. Aigoual at the southern margin of the great Central Massif of France, distinct evidence of an ancient glaciation has been found in the form of tillite and striated bed rock. The tillite is characteristically physically and lithologically heterogeneous and is firmly consolidated wherever it has been recently uncovered. ‘The stones found in the matrix vary in size from very small pebbles, to large boulders more than a meter in diameter. The larger boulders are predominantly of gray granite porphyry originating in the immediate vicinity. They are rarely striated, probably because they were not carried far, or because they disintegrate rapidly. The smaller stones that are less than a foot in diameter are not always typically glacial in form, but they are almost invariably well striated.
The scarcity of glacial phenomena; the entire absence of the topographic situations where alpine glaciers could have formed; and the fact that the tillite has no topographic expression in the landscape—a landscape which has been but slightly changed since mid-Tertiary time—would indicate that the streams of that period had quite thoroughly removed the glacial debris and destroyed the glacial topography before the close of the mid-Tertiary erosion period.
JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29
Had the glaciers that deposited the tillite been Pleistocene in age, the abun- dant debris, which must have been present, could not have been so nearly removed without appreciably altering the mid-Tertiary landscape. The glaciers that left the tillite must have been mountain glaciers that originated in Oligocene or early Miocene mountains which are known to have existed in this region following the uplift and faulting which took place during Oligo- cene time.
A review of the literature shows that PsETuRSSON reports Miocene glacial deposits in Iceland, ScHarpt reports Miocene glaciation in Italy, Mazzuoui also reports Miocene in Italy and the present author, in collaboration with Wa.uace W. Atwoop, has twice reported positive proof of Eocene or Oligo- cene glacial deposits in western United States. Glaciation during the mid- Tertiary is therefore recognized in several localities, and it is logical to believe that in the Cevennes we have another proof of this ancient glacial epoch. (Authors abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Mmrtre, ALDEN, SEARS, SPENCER and RuBEY.
469TH MEETING
The 469th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, November 26, 1930, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding.
Informal communications: JAMES GILLULY discussed a recent paper by EDWARD GREENLY on Folzation and its relation to folding in the Mona complex at Rhoscolyn, Anglesey. G@REENLY attributes monoplanic schists to flat- angled overthrusting—the common occurrence of folded monoplanic schists to later warping of the planes of schistosity. GILLULY pointed out that the stretching phenomena shown by the monoplanic schists of the Adirondack region do not support a similar interpretation but seem to indicate the origin of a foliation concomitant with its warping.
Discussed by Mr. HEss.
M. I. GoLpMAN showed specimens of polygonal columns formed by weather- ing of a silty grit in Permian red beds cropping out on an anticlinal nose which extends eastward from the Harz Mountains, Germany. A photograph of the outcrop was shown as a lantern slide.
Discussed by Messrs. BripGe and HUBBARD.
Program: F. L. Hess: A unique Bolivian tungsten deposit.
Discussed by Mr. BurcHARD.
B. R. Hupparp, S. J., Univeristy of Santa Clara, California: Geologic features of Aniakchak and Veniaminof craters, Alaska.—Aniakchak and Veni- aminof craters were discovered by a Geological Survey party under R. H. SARGENT in 1922, and W. B. Smits, geologist of the party, entered Aniakchak crater. In a second expedition in 1925 R. 8. KNapprn was geologist of the party. Aniakchak Crater, latitude 56° 45’, longitude 158° 9’, is situated mid- way along the Alaska Peninsula and has a base circumference of approximately 100 miles. Starting at sea level it rises to an elevation of 4,200 feet and has a rim whose perimeter is 21 miles. It appears to be an explosive crater that ejected about 19 cubic miles of material. Bombs with texture similar to rocks within the crater are found 25 miles away and the Aniakchak River cuts through ejected material all the way to Aniakchak Bay. Many interesting phenomena subsequent to the great explosion are found in the 30-square-mile area within the crater walls. A rift begins in Bering Sea and extends across the crater. Thence it traverses the block of sedimentary rocks that comprises
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
the mountains through which the Aniakchak River has cut a canyon somewhat in the form of an attenuated letter S. This rift might account for the depres- sion on the west side of the crater and the V-shaped notch of the eastern rim out of which the river flows. Fossiliferous Jurassic strata form part of the walls to the left of the V-shaped entrance. Lava muds and basalts top the crater walls. A minor cone, here called Vent Mountain, has a crater 1,000 feet in diameter and rises 2,200 feet above the main floor. Surprise Lake, 24 miles long, is formed by the impounding of water by deltas. Two lava cones and soda-iron bicarbonate springs occur at the head of the lake. Iron soda springs rise likewise from the lake bottom. Two explosion pits lie below the general level between Vent Mountain and Black Nose. In the western side of Aniakchak Crater a crescentic sub-crater about two miles in diameter contains a cinder cone from which as a center radiate lava flows that have concentric arcs of flowage lines. Near this cinder cone are several active fumaroles. Obsidian with columnar structure protrudes from the wall of the subcrater in many exposures. Here, too, active fumaroles, whose vapors come out under pressure, occur along fissure lines. A lava cone whose crater is filled with water, and a second cinder cone are found near the depression of the rim at the western wall.
Veniaminof Crater southwest of Black Lake is approximately 100 miles in circumference at the base and rises to a rim about 20 miles in circumference at an elevation of 8,400 feet. It contains a crater glacier that spills over the depressed rim and extends over a wide area for 25 miles towards Perryville. The ice also escapes through notches in the walls and forms lesser glaciers, notably Cone Glacier and Crab Glacier. A cone which smokes and throws ashes and black sand down its sides rises over a thousand feet above the ice. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. SARGENT and Capps.
K. O. Uuricu: Highlights of the past two seasons’ work. I. Origin and stratigraphic horizon of the zinc ores of the Mascot district of Hast Tennessee. In April, 1929, Drs. Burrs, Bripcse, Captain Ponp, and I devoted about a week to the study of problems connected with the stratigraphic position, origin, and probable areal distribution of zinc ores in what we formerly knew as the Knox dolomite of Kast Tennessee. The Mascot mine is the most nota- ble and successful of the zinc mines in the Appalachian Valley and is one which has earned more than the operators put into it.
We began our investigation at Jefferson City where extensive but shallow deposits were successfully worked, many years ago. In recent years prospect drilling along the strike of the rocks has disclosed some promising deposits that are now showing good ore. Our studies were not concerned so much with the prospects and mines themselves as with the reasons for their being, that is, why such deposits happen to occur here; and what relation the mineral- ized zones bear to stratigraphic horizons, character of country rock, and other conditions that may have been responsible for the local enrichment of the favoring zones to commercial proportions.
The formerly generally prevailing and still commonly entertained inter- pretation of these deposits is that they occur in fault breccias and that the mineral-bearing solutions travelled upward along the fault planes. In essen- tial respects then they would fall in the category of fissure veins. In my opinion they are neither fissure veins, nor connected with real faults—either of normal or thrust types, and the solutions did not come from below. Of course I shall not go into details of the complicated processes of mineral deposi-
JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 31
tion. It must suffice to state my opinion that the minerals come from the country rock and were carried in solution by ground waters which, when sur- charged with surface-derived organic acids, tended to precipitate as ores in favorable spots. Two conclusions may be reached from the facts observed:
1. All the commercially valuable and the as yet unproved deposits of sphalerite in the belt extending from Knoxville to Morristown were found at a definite stratigraphic horizon—namely, in a rather fine-grained, low-magne- sian limestone zone with a maximum thickness of about 100 feet. This lime- stone apparently is exceptionally favorable to replacement by sphalerite. It carries fossils that place it in the horizon of the Jefferson City dolomite of Mis- souri where, as in Tennessee, the corresponding formation is underlain by the Roubidoux formation and overlain by the Cotter formation. In Tennessee as in the Ozark region, the underlying and overlying formations are character- ized by profuse development of secondary chert on weathering and by easily distinguishable fossils faunas. Formerly, I was inclined to the belief that the horizon of the ore was at the unconformable contact between the Ozarkian and Canadian systems but that proved to be in error for it lies well up toward or rather above the middle of the Canadian, in the lowest of the five or six formations now recognized as constituting the sequence of Upper Canadian deposits.
2. The second conclusion is that the highly soluble Upper Canadian lime- stone was first honey-combed with sinkholes and caverns. Earthquakes and minor movements of the stratified crust caused fracturing and ‘‘spalling’’ of the roof and walls of the caverns, the pieces of rock making the accumulations of mainly angular fragments commonly referred to by geologists as breccia. Under favoring conditions, these accumulations of broken rock were cemented and in varying degrees replaced metasomatically by crystalline minerals. Often, as at Jefferson City, the greatest development of the ores occurred beneath the old sink holes whose position is indicated today by fossiliferous residual material of the Cotter formation which has slumped down into the horizon of the Jefferson City formation. As far as observed, the mineral- ization is largely and perhaps entirely confined in the areas of east Tennessee under consideration to the lower only very slightly cherty formation.
In conclusion, in the mines at Mascot and in the vicinity of Jefferson City the ores are confined to a definite stratigraphic horizon and this fact is simply and positively fatal to the conception that they occur in anything like true fissure veins or in fault breccias. (Author’s abstract.) i
Discussed by Messrs. Hess, MENDENHALL, R. C. WELLS, GILLULY, GOLD- MAN, BurRcHARD, Misr, C. 8S. Ross, HEwertt, BRIDGE.
470TH MEETING
The 470th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club December 10, 1930, President G. R. MANsFIELD presiding. Vice President MErINzER took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address: Problems of the Phosphoria formation in the Rocky Mountains.
38TH ANNUAL MEETING
The 38th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn- ment of the 470th regular meeting, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1122.09 on De-
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2
cember 8, 1930. The auditing committee reported that the books of the Treasurer were correct.
The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:
President: O. E. MuInzER.
Vice Presidents: F. L. Hrss and R. C. WE.Lzs.
Secretaries: C. H. DANE and A. M. PirEr.
Treasurer: C. WYTHE COOKE.
Members-at-Large of the Council: W. H. Brapuey, Jos1aH BRIDGE, JAMES GiLtLuLy, W. D. Jounston, Jr., J. B. MmrRrTin, JR.
Nominee as Vice President of the Washington Academy of Sciences ve senting the Geological Society: G. R. MANSFIELD.
JAMES GILLULY, C. H. DANg, Seeremmes
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Because of the greatly increased activities of the Water Resources Branch of the Geological Survey, Joun C. Hoyt has been relieved of his administra- tive duties in order to permit him to render expert services along technical engineering phases of water-resources investigations and to serve as a con- sultant to the Director and Chief Hydraulic Engineer. Cari G. PAULSEN succeeds Mr. Hoyt as Chief of the Division of Surface Water.
The vacancy in the position of Division Engineer in charge of the Pacific Division of the Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey caused by the death of T. G. GmRpDINE has been filled by the transfer of H. H. Hopexzson. Col. GLENN 8. Situ, for some time past on occasional duty status, succeeds Mr. Hopacsson as Division Engineer in charge of the Central Division.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington is sending a group of scientists to Guatemala to explore the geology, flora, and fauna of that part of the little- known Peten District which is accessible from the camp of the Institution’s Division of Historical Research at Uaxactun. The party will include Prof. H. H. Bartuert, chairman of the department of botany of the University of Michigan; Dr. C. WyTHE Cooke, geologist, U. 8. Geological Survey; Dr. A. MuRIE, assistant curator of mammals, University of Michigan; and Dr. J. VAN TYNE, assistant curator of birds, University of Michigan. They sail January 23rd from New Orleans to Belize, British Honduras, whence they proceed by river boat to El Cayo, and thence by pack train to Uaxactun.
Dr. C. G. Apsot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been named a member of the National Council for Intellectual Cooperation, which represents the United States in the newly organized Inter-American Institute of Intellectual Cooperation. The purpose of this institute is to mobilize the intelligence and the culture of the three Americas by organizing in each of the 21 American republics a council for promoting such policies as the interchange of students and research workers, the removal of prejudiced statements from geographies and histories, and finding ways and means of making available to all the information resources of the different countries.
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JOURNAL
OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou: 21 FEBRUARY 4, 1931 No. 3
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—Adsorption and base exchange.! P. G. NvuttinG, Geological Survey. -
One substance is adsorbed by another when it is not removable by a neutral solvent. Dyes are adsorbed by textile fibers, salts by soils, dark components of petroleum by filtering clays, so that they cannot be washed off by solvents, such as water, alcohol or gasoline. In a more general sense, a substance is adsorbed when its fugacity is lowered from what it would be were the second substance not present, its con- centration increases and its vapor and solution tensions decrease as the adsorbing surface is approached. Adsorption is not necessarily limited to the visible surface and in some cases shades off into true chemical reaction in stoichiometric proportions or into true solution, long before molecular dimensions are reached.
Adsorption is naturally very sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure (or concentration) but reaches a true reversible equilibrium given time enough. In a few cases, a slight rise in temperature is sufficient to remove all or nearly all the moisture adsorbed on salts or minerals or the organic vapors adsorbed on charcoal. In compara- tively few cases also, lowering the concentration (vapor or solution) may remove an adsorbed film. In general however adsorption-temper- ature and adsorption-concentration relations present the widest variety of forms and ranges.
The material adsorbed may be either molecular or ionic, positive ions depositing on an electronegative particle and vice versa. Polar molecules are adsorbed with like ends attached to the adsorbing sur- face, presenting a new adsorbing surface of the same charge as the
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received December 11, 19380.
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34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
original one. Similarly positive and negative ions may pile up in alternate layers. In the case of adsorbed water, H and OH constitute the alternate layers and in thick films are indistinguishable from ad- sorbed molecular water. In crystallization from solution ions are adsorbed in pairs. Nonpolar molecules also vary in concentration near a surface of discontinuity but this is a purely physical pheno- menon, the seat of surface tension and adhesion. This form of sur- face film yields readily to solvents and is not considered adsorption proper.
Base exchange is concerned with single layers of adsorbed ions, practically in chemical combination with the surface and in extreme cases, with every combinable atom present, whether the dispersion be partial or complete. It is not unusual to find one base completely replaceable while another is only partly replaceable in the same granu- lar substance. Weak bases are replaced by stronger ones, and every other base by H by means of an acid treatment. The mass law holds and equilibrium constants may be found without great difficulty. Particles settling out carry adsorbed charges down with them. ‘Table 1 shows the complexity of the behavior of even the simplest water suspensions.
Since two or more of these are usually present in any given sample of soil colloid, it is to be expected that conflicting results would be ob- tained in working with such samples.
Table 1 is somewhat idealized, for in water at room temperature the adsorption is probably many pairs of ions deep in all cases. How- ever, the innermost layer is by far the most effective and dominates the behavior of the micelle. At higher temperatures, the outer less strongly held layers would be set free and this may account for the better results sometimes obtained at elevated temperatures in practi- cal filtration, dyeing, ete. |
Oil sands sometimes but rarely consist of well formed quartz crystals free from adsorbed coatings. Such sands usually consist of ill-formed, rough quartz grains, coated with ferrous or ferrous-aluminum sili- cates or with adsorbed black hydrocarbon which cannot be washed off with even the most powerful solvents. Grain coatings of car- bonates (Fe, Ca, Mg) are not uncommon. ‘The well known Bradford oil sand is coated first with colloidal iron, then with black hydrocarbon. The Tensleep oil sand is pure quartz heavily coated with a hydrocar- bon. The pore walls of oil-bearing limes are black with hydrocarbon.
FEB. 4, 1931 NUTTING: ADSORPTION AND BASE EXCHANGE 30
It is possible to peel off these two layers from a Bradford sand and even to restore them. The hydrocarbon is removed with chromic acid (‘‘wet combustion’’), the iron with ordinary acids. The grains thus peeled are active and if thoroughly washed and dried will re- adsorb coatings of either iron (from dialized iron in dilute suspension) or hydrocarbon from crude oil in a few hours. It was found easily possible to activate even sea sand or the faces of a quartz crystal by first attacking with alkali, then washing with acid, then with water, and drying. Such an activated silica surface, freed from H and OH by heating to 200°C., will freely adsorb all kinds of positive ions, even
TABLE 1. Cuasses or WATER SUSPENSIONS
Class Micelle Surface Exchangeable ion Dispersing eifect
i Negative H H Acid Z Positive OH OH Alkaline 3) Negative OH inner H Alkaline H outer 4 Positive H inner OH Acid OH outer
1. Silica gel, acid clay, humus.
2. Colloidal Ca3(POx)2, dialized iron (?).
3. Calcium permutites, zeolites, neg. Al(OH);. 4. Electropositive Al(OH);.
amphoteric colloidal alumina and probably anything less negative than silica.
Well-aged dialized iron is inert toward even strong acids or alkalis, but even a very dilute suspension (1 part per million) is readily ad- sorbed by active silica. Iron stains in old bath tubs are readily ex- plained if it be supposed that the long-continued drip of fresh water on the porcelain leaches out sufficient alkali to leave an active alkali silicate surface to adsorb the very dilute iron from tap water. There is abundant geological evidence for the solution and redeposition of silica by water, hence it is not surprising to find oil sands generally activated and coated as well as silica cemented.
Classes 1 and 3 of Table 1 after thorough drying make good clarify- ing filters for mineral oils such as petroleum but do not filter vegetable
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
oils or mineral fats containing OH. If the normal hydrogen has been replaced by an alkali (K, Na), the filter must first be acid treated. On the other hand classes 2 and 4, or clays containing these in excess, make the best filters for animal and vegetable oils. That the presence of the hydroxyl ion is the vital factor is readily shown by adding a ~ little alcohol, linseed oil or glycerine (all rich in OH) to a crude petro- leum; filtration is inhibited.
One filtering clay is known which filters all three classes of oils about equally well. Chemical analysis shows this to contain a little alkali, enough to give it an amphoteric dispersing character ; SiO, 69, Al,O; 13, Fe.O3 8, (Ca, Mg)O 2, and (K,Na).O 2.5 per cent, the rest chiefly water.
All good filtering clays retain 12 to 22 percent of water when room- dry at low humidities and part with most of it only on heating to well over 150° or 200°C. ‘This is as it should be with H and OH firmly adsorbed. Driving these off as water would leave open bonds ready to attack the more basic colored constituents of oil. If they be not driven off (moist filter), only bases stronger than H and OH and there- fore capable of replacing them would be adsorbed and filtered out. It is found that a filter not thoroughly dried will filter black petroleum to a yellow but not to water white as a dry filter will.
Since adsorbed moisture leaves an active silicate surface only at high temperatures, a high-temperature (250°C.) water treatment is a means of producing an active surface on silica or a silicate. The H and OH bonds (toward silica) are in a labile state at such temperatures provided the water is confined to prevent its escape. Release of that pressure leaves the bonds open. Even a carbonate may be converted to a hydrate by high-temperature steam treatment if the CO, is al- lowed to escape while the supply of H,.O is maintained.
Many other colloidal oxides besides silica and the silicates may be prepared as good filters. Their action is similar in principle as regards adsorption and base exchange even when the micelle is electropositive. The writer has prepared three (Fe, Al and Si) so powerful as to crack even paraffin and heavy laxative oils, reducing them from clear to a black condition. This is done by preparing the gel in maximum dilu- tion. Active colloidal iron, in the form of a dark red-brown powder, will even filter dialized iron from a very dilute yellow suspension, leaving clear water. This form of autoadsorption between colloids is akin to crystallization (adsorption of ions in pairs). The deposit of colloidal iron on and near the surface of siliceous pebbles in stream beds is very common.
FEB. 4, 1931 GAHAN: HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES 7
ENTOMOLOGY .—Two new hymenopterous parasites of Tachypterellus consors Dietz.1 A. B. GaHan, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)
Two species of Chalcidoidea which appear to be new to science are herewith described. These were reared by Gnorce M. List of the Colorado Agricultural College in connection with his studies of their host, a curculionid which is said to be causing considerable injury to cherries in the vicinity of Fort Collins, Colorado. Mr. List intends to describe the host insect as a new variety of T. consors Dvetz.
Family PTEROMALIDAE
Habrocytus lividus, new species
This resembles H. piercet Crawford in size and shape but may be dis- tinguished by the darker, less metallic color of the body and the dark brown or black tibiae, by the shorter ocellocular line which is barely longer than the diameter of an ocellus, and by the shorter propodeum which is without a distinct neck. Differs from H. obscuripes Ashmead by the differently colored body and legs, by the more strongly transverse head, and by the less strongly sculptured propodeum.
Female.—Length 2.6 mm. Antennae inserted at middle of head; scape cylindrical, extending a little above the vertex; pedicel about twice as long as broad, slender; two ring-joints distinct but transverse; first funicle joint about as long as and a little thicker than the pedicel, not quite twice as long as broad; second to fifth funicle joints each distinctly longer than broad, sub- equal in length to pedicel, the sixth barely longer than broad; club short ovate, one half wider than the sixth funicle joint and about as long as the fifth and sixth combined. Head strongly transverse, thin antero-posteriorly at vertex, concave behind, reticulate-punctate all over, the sculpture a little finer on vertex and cheeks than on frons and face; ocellocular line very slightly longer than the diameter of a lateral ocellus; eyes bare, malar space equal to about half the height of eye; right mandible four-toothed, the left three- toothed but with the inner tooth broadly truncate and a little concave at apex. Thorax sculptured like the head but with the punctures appearing a little deeper; mesoscutum broader than long, the parapsidal grooves absent on posterior half; scutellum and axillae a little more finely sculptured than the mesoscutum; propodeum short, with a median carina, the lateral folds more or less incomplete, represented at base by deep fossae on either side of the middle and at apex by similar fossae, the two fossae on each side sometimes joined to each other by a very weak longitudinal groove; spiracular groove deep and distinct, spiracles elliptical; propodeum medially with weak reticu- lation, usually with some foveae along the anterior margin, outside the folds practically smooth. Marginal vein of forewing twice as long as stigmal, the post-marginal very slightly shorter than marginal; discal cilia absent behind submarginal vein. Abdomen twice as long as thorax and about as wide as
1 Received December 22, 1930.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
thorax, conic ovate, sessile, the first tergite occupying less than one fourth the length of abdomen, smooth, following tergites weakly reticulated. Gen- eral color bluish black; scape yellowish testaceous; flagellum dark brown; wings hyaline, venation pale brownish; coxae bluish, all femora and tibiae brownish black, the knees narrowly, extreme apices of hind tibiae and all tarsi yellowish testaceous; abdomen mostly black but with the basal tergite metallic blue green. The head, propodeum, underside of thorax, and the hind femora show strong steel-blue tints in some lights.
Male.—Length 2 mm. Similar to the female except that the antennal pedicel is hardly twice as long as thick, the club is very little broader than the preceding joint, the tibiae are brownish testaceous with the same color pattern as the female but not so dark, and the abdomen is not longer than the thorax. |
Type-locality.—F ort Collins, Colorado.
Type.—Cat. No. 48263, U. 8. N. M.
Host.—Tachypterellus consors Dietz.
Two females and five males received from G. M. List with the statement that they were reared from the above-named host infesting cherry. The type bears the date July 17, 1929, while other specimens bear dates ranging from July 13 to July 17, 1929. One male paratype was returned to the collector.
Family EHULOPHIDAE
Entedon tachypterelli, new species
This species is similar to #. occzdentalis Girault but differs by having the clypeus much smaller and less prominent, by having the post-marginal vein distinctly a little longer than the stigmal, and by having the abdomen dis- tinctly conic-ovate and longer than the head and thorax combined. The first funicle joint is also shorter than in EL. occidentalis and the hind tibiae are less extensively black. |
Female.—Length 3 mm. Antennae inserted nearly on a line with the lower extremities of the eyes; consisting of eight joints and a very short terminal spine; scape cylindrical, slightly curved and attaining the level of the front ocellus; pedicel about two and one-half times as long as thick and somewhat more slender than first funicle joint; one small ring-joint; funicle three-jointed, the first joint a little more than two and one-half times as long as broad and slightly longer than the pedicel, second joint shorter than the first but longer than the third, the latter usually slightly less than twice as long as broad; club 2-jointed, about as long as first funicle joint, ovate and terminating in a very short spine.
Head viewed from above four times as broad as long; vertex perpendicu- larly truncated behind; ecciput very slightly concave; eyes large, conspicu- ously hairy; ocelli in an obtuse triangle, the ocellocular line very slightly longer than the diameter of lateral ocellus; frontovertex strongly rugoso-punc- tate; face below antennae, cheeks, and temples more finely rugulose-punctate; clypeus not prominent, its anterior margin not reflexed. Thorax robust; prothorax short, much narrower and on a much lower level than the mesono- tum; mesoscutum convex, coarsely rugoso-punctate, the punctures somewhat coarser on posterior half of the median lobe than elsewhere, the parapsidal
FEB. 4, 1931 COCHRAN: NEW BAHAMAN REPTILES a9
grooves complete and each terminating posteriorly in a deep depression; scutellum rather large, convex, sculptured like the mesoscutum, usually with a broad shallow transverse depression near the middle; axillae broadly sepa- rated and sculptured like the scutellum; propodeum shining, more or less weakly reticulated, the median carina distinct but without a foveolate furrow along either side of it, lateral folds represented by very broad deep furrows or depressions which cause that portion of the propodeum between these folds to appear as an elevated area with sharp lateral margins; propodeal spiracles round, the spiracular areas appearing as rather large tubercles or raised areas surrounded by deep grooves; marginal vein longer than submarginal and dis- tinctly somewhat thicker at base than at apex; postmarginal longer than the stigmal; hind coxae dorsally rather coarsely reticulated, laterally and beneath more finely sculptured.
Abdomen conic-ovate, subsessile, about one-fourth longer than the head and thorax together, usually slightly narrower than the thorax, the first, second, third, and fourth tergites weakly reticulated; first, sixth, and seventh tergites subequal in length and each a little longer than any of the other ter- gites; ovipositor originating at or very near base of abdomen and not extend- ing beyond the apex.
Head, thorax, all coxae, and first tergite bluish green, occiput black; anten- nal flagellum brownish black, the scape bluish green; mandibles black, with their apices brown; all trochanters, all femora, a band of varying width (some- times embracing half their length) on the middle and hind tibiae near base, and the anterior and posterior margins of front tibiae, dark bluish to black; knees, all tibiae except as indicated, and all tarsi pale yellow; abdomen except first tergite bronzy black; wings hyaline with the venation dark brown.
Male.——Length2.5mm. Similar tothe female but with the scape distinctly though not greatly thickened, the flagellum somewhat more tapered toward apex, the club more distinctly separated into two joints, the ocellocular line equal to the diameter of a lateral ocellus, abdomen not longer than the thorax, elliptical in outline, distinctly petiolate, the petiole about as long as broad. The color agrees with that of the female except that the front is deep purplish.
Type-localitty—Fort Collins, Colorado.
Type—Cat. No. 43262, U. S. N. M.
Host.—Tachypterellus consors Dietz.
Described from eight females and eight males received from Gro. M. List of the Colorado Agricultural College with the information that they were reared from the above named curculionid. One paratype of each sex returned to the collector.
HERPETOLOGY.—New Bahaman reptiles. Doris M. Cocuran, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by C. WyTHE CooKE.)
During the summer of 1930 an extensive collecting trip through the Bahama Islands was carried out by Dr. Paut Bartscu of the United States National Museum, supported by the WALTER RATHBONE Bacon Scholarship Fund. Islands which no naturalist had hitherto visited
1 Received December 29, 1930. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
a
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
were explored for the first time scientifically. Excellent series of lizards obtained from many localities have already proved valuable in studies of variation among species which before have been poorly represented in any museum collection.
Leiocephalus inaguae, new species
Diagnosis.—A distinct lateral fold; four scales (an internasal and three prefrontals) between the rostral and the supraorbital ring; the second prefron- tal large and in contact with its fellow; body scales moderately large, 70 to 82 dorsals between occiput and beginning of tail, 16 to 20 in the distance be- tween end of snout and occiput; males with a row of large squarish black blotches on the shoulder region, continuing down the sides and fading out rapidly; faint traces of two more rows of squarish blotches on the back.
Type .—U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 81277, an adult male from Man of War Bay, Great Inagua Island, collected August 8, 1930.
Leiocephalus carinatus punctatus, new subspecies
Diagnosis.—Closely resembling the Cuban Lezocephalus carinatus, but differing from it in having a larger scale at the upper anterior region of the ear as well as in possessing a more vivid color pattern with a somewhat differ- ent arrangement of light and dark pigment especially on the head.
Type.—U.8. N. M. Cat. No. 81560 (collector’s number 135), a male taken on the north shore of the bay at Jamaica Wells, Acklin Island, July 6, 1930.
Cyclura carinata bartschi new subspecies
Diagnosis.—Nasals broadly in contact with the rostral and with each other; a pair of supranasals also closely in contact with each other; the scales of the prefrontal region quite uniform in size and shape, and grading into the smaller frontal and parietal scales; supraorbital semicircles barely differentiated by an occasional somewhat enlarged scale; scales of the supraocular region distinctly smaller than the other supracephalic scutes; two to four enlarged vertical canthals on each side of the head; nuchal and caudal crests widely sepa- rated from the dorsal crest, which is 12 mm. high (in adult males) and is com- posed of 60 to 73 spines (average in 6 specimens, 63.5); nuchal crest composed of 16 to 20 spines (average 17.1), the highest of which measures 15 mm.; 4 vertical rows of small scales between the fifth and sixth verticils of the tail; 8 supralabials (rarely 9) to a point below the center of the eye; rostral wider than the mental; three to four enlarged tibial scales equaling the vertical diameter of the tympanic membrane.
Type.—U. 8. N. M. Cat. No. 81212 (collector’s number 172), an adult male from Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Island, Bahamas, collected July Zi, 1930,
Anolis leucophaeus mariguanae, new subspecies
Diagnosis.—Similar to Anolis leucophaeus Garman, but differing from it in coloration. Ground color drab gray above, lavender-gray beneath, often with a wide clove-brown lateral band which originates on the loreal region, passes through the eye and above the ear, and widens above the shoulder continuing onto the base of the tail and gradually fading out; a light area | usually bounding its lower border; a second dark lateral stripe beginning on the malar region just behind the mental, continuing back beneath the ear and
FEB. 4, 1931 CHITWOOD: SPERMATOZOA IN A NEMATODE 4]
merging in front of the shoulder with the upper lateral stripe in some cases, in other cases widening and suffusing the entire side of the throat and upper- arm region with a dusky mottling; skin of gular fan lavender-gray, the scales white or olive-yellow. The young have dark latero-ventral reticulations, and the throat usually has a series of dark longitudinal lines. In adult males the tail fin is large and its upper edge is indistinctly mottled with dark in the region of the rays. Limbs sometimes unmarked, sometimes with wide, irregu- lar dark bars. Scales on limbs a little smaller than in lewcophaeus proper; seales of tail a little larger.
Type.—U. 8. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 81346, an adult male from Mariguana Cay, taken July 18, 1930.
ZOOLOGY .—Flagellate spermatozoa in a nematode (Trilobus longus).! B. G. Cuitwoop, The George Washington University. (Com- municated by PauL BARTSCH.)
The spermatozoa of nematodes are usually thought of as ameboid, Ascaris having been the example studied for years. Yet Professor
Figure 2. A testis of a male Trilobus longus showing the flagellate spermatozoa. X415.
EK. B. Witson in 1925? says ‘‘In others such as those of Ascaris, the Sperm may be regarded asa much shortened and thickened flagelliform cell with a relatively large amount of cytoplasm and a very short and non-vibratile tail.’’ If his conception is correct, one would expect to find among the free-living nematodes forms in which the spermatozoa retain their tail and are capable of movement.
While examining collections from the beach sand at White Lake, North Carolina, attention was drawn to the rather obvious spermato- zoa ot T'rilobus longus. They may be readily seen in living specimens of both male andfemale. The spermatozoa (Fig. 1) are approximately 60. long. The head is blunt and expanding quickly posteriorly, and of oval outline in transverse section. The small nucleus is situated
1 Received November 6, 1930. 2 The cell in development and heredity, p. 298.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
at the extreme anterior end of the head. The tail is long and tapering. From a casual observation of both living and sectioned testes (Fig. 2), I am inclined to believe that spermatogenesis is normal. Primary and secondary spermatocytes as well as spermatids are present.
W hen a living specimen is mashed and the spermatozoa liberated on the slide they move with a slow serpentine motion. Spermatozoa thus freed are short-lived, lasting at best only about three minutes. In the female the activity of the spermatozoa is best observed. When mature females are examined, these almost always contain a somewhat twisted ball-shaped mass of spermatozoa in a definite place in each uterus, the spermatheca. Here they may be seen slowly squirming over one another.
Probably many other nematodes have flagellate spermatozoa. Trilobus longus is described by Dr. N. A. Cops in Ward and Whipple’s Fresh Water Biology, a book available to most zoologists. The nema- tode is widespread, common on the sandy bottom of lakes and streams between the depths of six inches and two feet. The cytologist might find the spermatogenesis of Trzlobus an interesting problem.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
1004TH MEETING
The 1004th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 15, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding.
Program: W. J. Roongy: Karth-resistiity survey at Huancayo, Peru, and relation of resistivity to earth-current potential records.—This survey, carried out near the Huancayo (Peru) Magnetic Observatory of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in the high Andes, is one of a series of earth-resistiv- ity surveys made in connection with the study of earth-currents at observa- tories where potential gradient registration is in progress. The general re- sistivity of the region and its variation with position, depth, direction of current flow and rainfall, were determined. All may affect potential records and are indicative of the geological structure.
The resistivity of soil near the surface varied from over 100,000 to less than 2000 ohm-cm., depending on the character of the overburden. The mean values tended to converge to a value around 10,000 ohm-em., as earth to depths of 200 to 300 meters was included in the measurements. These results are typical for an underlying structure of sedimentary rocks. A local area of high resistivity (values three times the mean for the region as a whole) was found near one earth-current line and explains the high-potential gradient records obtained from that line. The results were found to be independent of the orientation of the survey lines, indicating that the region is laterally isotropic. The seasonal variation was small and relatively unimportant. (Author’s abstract.)
FEB. 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 43
Discussed by Messrs. GisH and LAMBERT.
C. B. Watts: The transit instrument and the synchronous motor.—A new driving mechanism for the traveling-wire micrometer of a transit instrument has been developed at the Naval Observatory. It consists of a small syn- chronous motor, weighing only a few ounces, mounted on the micrometer and geared directly to the screw. The speed at which the traveling wire moves is adjusted to suit the declination of the star under observation by changing the frequency of the current which drives the motor.
A true alternating current is not required to run the motor, and it has been found convenient in practice to change a direct current by means of a rapidly revolving commutator into a rough approximation to a two-phase alternating current. The commutator is made to revolve at a speed corresponding to a particular declination by means of a friction drive. The observer can also cause the brushes which take the current from the commutator to rotate slowly in one direction or the other and thus alter the frequency by such amounts as are necessary to keep the star bisected. This auxiliary apparatus is controlled by means of a push button in the observer’s hand. By this means very satisfactory results have been secured, the probable error of a single observation, including errors of star places, being 0°.12.
The possibility of applying similar motors to a photographic transit instru- ment is also being investigated, the plate being moved in such a way as to compensate as nearly as possible for the motion of the starimages. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, KRAcEK, CURTIS, and LAMBERT.
R. E. Gipson and L.H.Apams: Thevolume change of rubber under pressure.— Direct measurements were made of the, fractional change in volume under- gone by samples of rubber when subjected to pressures up to 12,000 mega- baryes. The samples investigated were:—hard rubber containing 27 percent of sulphur, and two specimens of soft rubber containing 10 and 5 percent of sulphur, respectively. Between 1 and 12,000 mb. the changes in volume for the specimens in descending order of sulphur content are 13.3, 16.1 and 18.5 percent of the volume at 1 mb. respectively. The compressibilities of the samples arranged in like order fall from 19.2, 35.2 and 36.6 at 1 mb. to 6.3, 5.9 and 6.3 at 12,000 mb. The compressibilities are fractional volume changes expressed in parts per million per megabarye. The course of the compressibility curve for soft rubber is strongly suggestive of that of a liquid. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. CANFIELD, GisH, HAWKESWORTH, DRYDEN, KRACEK, L. H. Apams, and CurrTIs.
1005TH MEETING
The 1005th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 29, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding.
Program:
C. G. MclIuwraits: Radio frequency standards: Discussed by Messrs. BROWN, CRITTENDEN, HumMPHREYS and TUCKERMAN.
H. Diamonp: Radio aids to air navigation—Research work on a visual- type radio-beacon system for use on the airways of the United States has been under way at the Bureau of Standards during 1926-1929. Asa result of this work a system has been developed which fulfills the requirements for course navigation on the civil airways. A directional transmitter is employed on the ground making possible the use of simple apparatus on board the air-
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
plane. A single receiving set is sufficient to make use of all the radio aids provided. Visual indication is provided by means of a tuned-reed course indicator. The pilot observes the vibration amplitudes of two reeds. On the course, the amplitudes are equal. Off the course, they are unequal, the reed vibrating with the greater amplitude being on the side to which the airplane has deviated.
Two types of beacon transmitters are described, the double-modulation and the triple-modulation. The former is capable of serving either two courses at 180° with each other or four courses at arbitrary angles. The latter serves twelve courses at arbitrary angles, and is better adapted for use at airports located at the junction of a large number of airways. Reed indi- cators for use with the double-modulation and triple-modulation beacons are described.
A discussion of the receiving set and receiving antenna system employed is included. Airplane engine ignition shielding is also discussed.
A marker-beacon system has been developed whereby the pilot is given visual indication of his exact position at definite intervals along the route.
Special adaptations of the beacon system are described for facilitating landing in fog. (Author’s abstract.)
1006TH MEETING
The 1006th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 12, 1930, Vice President Curtis presiding. The program consisted of five illustrated papers discussing various phases of the scientific work during the seventh cruise of the Carnegie. ‘The discussion of the papers was deferred until they had all been presented.
Program: J. A. Furmrinec: Terrestrial magnetism.—Of the 110,000 nautical miles planned for the seventh cruise of the Carnegie, nearly one-half had been completed since her departure from Washington, May 1, 1928, upon her arrival at Apia, November 28, 1929. The work done has realized practically in every detail the extensive scientific program planned to determine magnetic secular- variation, to extend the atmospheric-electric survey, and to undertake more comprehensive work in physical and chemical oceanography and in marine biology and meteorology. An outstanding feature had been the successful development of the practical technique and instrumental appliances for ocean- ographic work on a sailing vessel—an accomplishment of which Captain AULT and his men had good reason to be proud. During the first six cruises chief emphasis was placed on the magnetic and electric programs, with only a mod- erate amount of atmospheric-electric and meteorological observations. In Cruise VII those high standards planned under the energetic directorship of Dr. Bausr and his coworkers, and so well developed by the vessel’s first commander, W. J. Prtmrs, and his successor, Captain J. P. AULT, were being maintained.
But Cruise VII was tragically the last of the seven great adventures repre- sented by the world-cruises of the Carnegie. It was shortly after one o’clock November 29, 1929, while in harbor at Apia, Western Samoa, and completing the storage of 2,000 gallons of gasoline, that an explosion took place as the result of which Captain AuuT and Cabin-Boy Kouar succumbed, the engi- neer, mechanic, and three seamen were injured, and the vessel with all her equipment was destroyed by the resulting fire.
Thanks to that characteristic promptness of Captain Auut, however, all records, reports, and samples obtained to arrival at Pago Pago, American
FEB. 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 45
Samoa, November 18, 1929, had been mailed or forwarded by freight from that port, and all have now been received in Washington.
The standard instruments for the program in terrestrial magnestism were the collimating-compass for declination, the deflector for horizontal intensity, and the marine earth-inductor for inclination. Mr. F. M. Souug, one of the scientific staff on Cruise VII, had been carrying on experimental work aboard during the cruise with the inductor for the determination of horizontal in- tensity, and the progress made which will be described elsewhere gives prom- ise that this method will ultimately be more reliable than the deflector method. The summary of the ship’s log and magnetic observations during May 1928 to November 1929 shows that in a total of 376 days actually at sea 44,877 sea miles had been covered by the vessel, and that the magnetic declination, horizontal intensity, and inclination had been determined at 520, 175, and 174 stations, respectively. Shore observations were also obtained at repeat- stations in Iceland, Barbados, Easter Island, Peru, Western Samoa, Guam, Japan, and California, including intercomparisons of magnetic standards at the following observatories: Seddin (Germany), Huancayo (Peru), Apia (Western Samoa), and Kakooka (Japan).
The preliminary values of the magnetic elements and the average annual- changes based on over 100 intersections with previous cruises of the Carnegie in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans have been published. The values obtained through September 1929 have been utilized by the United States Hydro- graphic Office in preparing its revised isomagnetic world-charts for the epoch 1930 only recently issued. The annual-change values show that the recent isomagnetic charts are substantially correct. The agonic line, however, is nearer the western coast of South America than indicated on the charts. The area of rapid increase in magnetic inclination in the western Caribbean and off the coast of northwestern Peru extends westward to the line of no annual change passing from the Gulf of Alaska past the neighborhood of Samoa. The annual-change values of horizontal intensity are not quite so consistent as are those of other elements—a condition to be expected in view of the greater difficulty in precise determinations of this element.
In view of the fact that the Institution’s magnetic-distribution survey of the oceans has been practically completed in the work already done by the Carnegie and because of the large sum—probably twice the original cost— which would be required to construct and equip a second and like non-mag- netic ship, the trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington have de- cided not to replace the Carnegie. It is hoped, however, that steps may be initiated through cooperation of oceanographic interests in the United States for a ship specially designed for oceanographic researches including occa- sional magnetic and electric observations in all oceans in continuation and development of the plans which were being executed on the Carnegie. It is in this way chiefly that the experience and technique acquired in many years of preparation, of development of instruments, and of cruising could be capi- talized to benefit future oceanographic research.
The high esteem and regard for Captain AuLT and his work have been demonstrated by the many cablegrams, letters, and resolutions of condolence received from all parts of the world. These too have furnished much addi- tional evidence of that universal good-will which has, throughout the cruises of the Carnegie and her predecessor, the Galilee, so marked these activities. (Author’s abstract.)
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3
F. N. Souue: Oceanography.—The actual work of observation and collection in the field of physical oceanography on Cruise VII of the Carnegie consisted of the collection of bottom-samples and the measurement of depths, temperatures, and salinities. Various bottom-sampling devices were used. Depths were measured with thermometers, wire lengths, and sonic-soundings. ‘Tempera- tures were measured by means of deep-sea reversing thermometers, and water- samples were collected with Nansen water-bottles. Salinities were measured by the conductivity method using the Wenner salinity-bridge. The extent of the work is described as well as the method of collection and measurement. (Author’s abstract.)
H. W. Grawam: Biology and chemistry—The biological program of the Carnegie was designed for the study of the planktonic organisms in the upper 100-meter layer in the open ocean. Silk nets were towed at the surface, at 50 meters, and at 100 meters for the capture of qualitative samples, and a Pettersson plankton-pump was operated at the same levels to obtain samples for quantitative studies.
The chemical program was confined to a study of the conditions affecting the distribution of organisms in the sea. All water-samples collected were analyzed for hydrogen-ion concentration, phosphates, silicates, and dissolved oxygen. The results in the Pacific show that the waters may be divided into three general layers: An upper layer where an active plant and animal life is maintained, a middle layer in which a decomposition of organic remains is taking place, and a lower layer which represents water that has been conducted from polar regions. The upper layer shows high values of dissolved oxygen but low values of phosphates, silicates, and hydrogen-ion concentration. The middle layer is low in oxygen but high in phosphates and silicates, and is relatively less alkaline. The lower layer tends toward conditions at the sur- face with again higher values of dissolved oxygen and lower of phosphates, silicates, and hydrogen-ion concentration. (Author’s abstract.)
J. H. Pauu: Meteorology.—An abbreviation of the usual magnetic investi- gations made it possible to undertake a complete meteorological program during Cruise VII of the non-magnetic vessel Carnegie. In addition to the ordinary observations, a study of several special problems in atmospheric circulation over the oceans was initiated. Temperature and humidity lapse rates from quarter-deck to masthead were recorded automatically by a Hart- mann and Braun electric-resistance multi-thermograph with three pairs of thermal elements (wet and dry) at various heights. Continuous thermograms of sea-surface temperature were obtained by a bulb-and-capillary recorder. Continuous humidity measurements were also obtained by a recording aspira- tion psychrometer of Negretti and Zambra manufacture for immediate use aboard and as a control on the multi-thermograph. These instruments were all interecompared with standard thermometers daily. A continuous record of atmospheric pressure was kept by an aneroid barograph which was daily checked by readings on standard mercurial barometers. In addition to these records, soundings of the upper air were made almost daily in the Pacific with hydrogen-inflated pilot balloons for direction and velocity of the air currents to great heights. Measurements of the rate of evaporation were carried out when conditions were favorable. Projected studies in total solar and sky radiation, although of great interest, had to be abandoned because of the difficulties encountered in working on a vessel with lofty sails and be- cause of pressure of other work.
FEB. 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS _ 47
The great interest of meteorologists in the work of the Carnegie is due to the fact that she sailed in regions from which data is very scanty and was working with instruments whose accuracy is known, something one can not claim for the commercial vessels from which ocean observations are ordinarily obtained. (Author’s abstract.)
O. H. GisH: Atmospheric electricity—Work on previous cruises of the Carnegie has shown not only that satisfactory measurements of the elements of atmospheric electricity could be made on a moving vessel at sea but also that the electrical state of the atmosphere over ocean areas is little affected by local factors such as give a confusing complexity to these phenomena over land. It was due to this circumstance that 8. J. Maucuuy was able to con- clude, from the comparatively small amount of data obtained on Cruises IV, V, and VI, that the regular change during the day of the electric intensity, or potential gradient, over the oceans proceeds on a universal schedule every- where. This important discovery has been verified by the extensive data obtained on Cruise VII. Much encouraged by the outcome of earlier cruises a more intensive and elaborate program was planned for Cruise VII, general facilities and sundry instrumental features were improved, a photographic recorder for potential gradient was installed at Washington (May 1928) and a recorder of conductivity at San Francisco (August 1929), an additional in- strument for measuring the penetrating radiation and of a different type from that used on the Carnegie since 1915 was provided. These and an Aitken “‘dust’’ counter constituted the new instrumental equipment.
As a measure of the work accomplished, the following is significant: Aside from over 200 complete daily programs and a number of diurnal-variation series (24 consecutive hours each) not completed due to the development of bad weather, the number of complete diurnal-variation series with eye-reading instruments were obtained as follows: conductivity, 22; ionic-content, 20; mobility (indirect), 20; penetrating radiation, 26; condensation nuclei (with Aitken dust counter), 15; and with photographic recorders satisfactory com- plete daily records of potential gradient, free from negative potential, were obtained for 194 days and of conductivity for 56 days, the latter from San Francisco to Apia. The diurnal-variation series by eye-readings were ob- tained at about twice the rate for previous cruises, and the recorder yielded satisfactory data at more than tenfold the rate previously attained by eye- reading methods. The gratifying success of this program is in a great meas- ure due to the enthusiasm, diligence, and skill of W. C. PARKINSON, senior scientific officer, who was in charge of the work on board throughout the cruise, and O. W. TorreEson, executive officer, from Washington to San Francisco, and 8. E. Forsusu, executive officer, San Francisco to Apia, who assisted in some aspects of the work. (Author’s abstract.)
The papers were discussed by Messrs. Heck, PETERS, SVERDRUP, CURTIS
and HAWKESWORTH. Oscar 8S. Apams, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
GEORGE Otis SmitH, Director of the Geological Survey since 1907, re- signed December 22, 1930 to accept appointment as Chairman of the Federal Power Commission. Watter C. MENDENHALL, formerly chief geologist, has been designated acting director by the Secretary of the Interior. T. W.
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 3
STANTON is now acting chief geologist; Joun B. Rensipn, Jr., is acting geologist in charge of the section of paleontology and stratigraphy; and H. D. Miser has been designated acting chairman of the committee on geologic names. Messrs. RensiIpE and WILLIAM W. RuBery have been added to the committee.
H. G. Barser of Roselle, New Jersey, has been appointed a specialist in Hemiptera in the Bureau of Entomology and placed in charge of the collec- tion in the National Museum.
Dr. Wn. A. Horrman, of the Porto Rican School of Tropical Medicine, and Dr. JosepH Brequazrt, of the Harvard University Medical School, were visitors at the Division of Insects of the National Museum in December.
Dr. CARLETON R. Batu, formerly principal agronomist in charge of the Office of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, went to California early in January to take charge of a survey of federal, State, and local (county and city) relationships in the diverse agricultural activities in that State. The survey of agriculture, which is the first of a series planned to cover these relationships in all human activi- ties in California, is conducted by the Bureau of Public Administration of the Department of Political Science of the University of California at Berkeley with funds from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is hoped to complete and publish the agricultural survey in 1931.
Dr. Davin G. FarIRcHILD, botanist and agricultural explorer now attached to the Office of Foreign Plant Introduction of the Department of Agriculture, has been awarded the GrorcE RoBeRtT WHITE medal by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
@Obituary
GEORGE GoopING AINSLIE, of Knoxville, Tenn., since 1908 connected with the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, died suddenly in Washington December 19, 1930. He was born in Rochester, Minn., March 7, 1886. He studied at the University of Minnesota, where he was assistant to the State Entomologist from 1906 to 1908. During 1909-1910 he was assistant in entomology at Clemson College. ) |
FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD, plant physiologist of the Bureau of Plant In- dustry since 1910 and a member of the Academy, died suddenly at his office January 13, 1931. He was born at Camanche, Iowa, December 24, 1874. He received the degree of bachelor of science from the University of Nebraska in 1904 and later served as instructor in botany and bacteriology at the North Dakota Agricultural College, where he became assistant professor in botany and pathologist at the college experimental station in 1905. In 1907 he was made assistant in plant breeding at Cornell University and in 1909 became botanist at the Wisconsin Experimental Station while an agent of the Department of Agriculture. He specialized in breeding disease-resisting varieties of tomatoes.
te ae The Geoaaptec Society 4. The Philosophical Society = _ The Anthropological Society: OO Sa Sarena te.
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Phils aoe Soni. sessnsseeesessesssssseeecsttnens a ScreNTrIFIC Notes AND , NEWE.«. Ra ete:
FEBRUARY 19,1931 ~ No. 4
oe ‘c o; 4 2
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
_C. Wytur Cooxr CHARLES DRECHSLER Hues L. Dryrpen U. 8. GHOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
W. J. PETERS Haroup MorRIson PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. Strosr BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GBOLOGICAL SOCIETY Agnes CHASE J. R. Swanton BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Roger C. WELLS CHEMICAL SOCIETY
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JOURNAL
OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 21 Frepruary 19, 1931 No. 4
BOTANY.—A new spiral-orchid from the southern states... Epaar T. Wuerry, University of Pennsylvania.
While studying the soil-reaction relations of native plants in the south, I have repeatedly observed in boggy pinelands a spiral-orchid (ladies-tresses) not corresponding to any species included in Small’s Flora.2 It is closely related to the Slender Spiral-orchid [Jbidium gracile (Bigel House)], and search for morphological differences be- tween them has not been particularly successful. They are, however, more or less distinct in flower color, sepal length, habitat, range, and blooming period, and show no evident intergradation. The southern plant is accordingly here described as a new species.
Lateral sepals little exceeding the bend in the green-centered lip; growing in moderately acid grassy fields, S. C. to Tex. and northward to N. S. and lai lOOMING IM. SMIMMENs 2.6... wk ce ee ne Ibidium gracile
Lateral sepals decidedly exceeding the bend in the yellow-centered lip; grow- ing in strongly acid moist pine-lands, Fla. to Tex. and northward to eoneral >. ©.; blooming m-spring: o>... 6... e eee. Ibidium floridanum
Ibidium floridanum Wherry, sp. nov. FIG. 1.
I. gracili similis, sed floribus vernalibus et labii medio intense flavo.
Resembling J. gracile; roots several; principal leaves basal, appearing in autumn and withering the following summer, more or less petioled, the blades elliptic, 1 to 4 em. long and 5 to 20 mm. wide; stem 15 to 40 cm. tall, bearing 4 to 7 remote scale-like leaves; raceme 3 to 10 em. long, single ranked, often strongly spiralled; flowers usually opening in March or April (occasionally as early as mid-December or as late as mid-May); color creamy white with the middle of the lip deep yellow [in this respect resembling I. plantagineum (Raf.) House]; lateral sepals about 5 mm. long, often projecting rather markedly beyond the bend in the lip; callosities stubby, 1 mm. long.
1 Contribution from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. Received November 26, 1930. ? Flora of the Southeastern United States. 319. 1903.
49
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
Type in U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,466,427, collected by Edgar T. Wherry April 14, 1930, near Loretto, Duval County, Florida. Named from the fact that it is widespread and abundant in this state, specimens having been seen from the following counties: Broward, Duval, Flagler, Gadsden, Lye AG Jackson, Lake, Lee, Marion, Orange, Pinellas, St. Johns, and
alton.
Noteworthy specimens are as follows: FLORIDA:
Tampa Bay, Burrows, 1834; the earliest known collection (New York Botanical Garden)
Fig. 1. [bidium floridanum Type locality. Natural size.
Fort Myers, Standley, December 14, 1919; an unusually early blooming date (United States National Herbarium) Fort Lauderdale to Miami, Small & Carter, February, 1911; the southern- most known station (N. Y. B. G.) GEORGIA: Milledgeville, Boykin, 1836 (N. Y. B. G.). Wrightsboro, Chapman (N. Y. B. G.) SOUTH CAROLINA: Anderson, Davis, April 9, 1919; the northernmost known station (U. 8S. N. H.) ALABAMA: Mobile, Mohr, May, 1868 (U.S. N. H.) Mississippi: Koshtaw, Tracy, May 20, 1898. (N. Y. B.G.) LOUISIANA: Alexandria, Hale, April. (N. Y. B. G.) Texas: Houston, Hail, April 1, 1872; the westernmost known station (N. Y. B. G.)
FEB. 19, 1931 KELLUM: NAMES OF THREE FOSSILS 51
The southernmost occurrences of I. gracile represented among specimens seen are: SOUTH CAROLINA: Aiken, Ravenel, September, 1869 (U.S. N. H.) ALABAMA: Auburn, Pollard & Mazon, July 9-11, 1900 (U. 8. N. H.) ARKANSAS: Texarkana, Heller, August, 1898 (N. Y. B. G.)
The ranges of the two species thus barely overlap.
PALEONTOLOGY.—Revision of the names of three fossils from the Castle Hayne and Trent marls in North Carolina! L. B. KELLUM, University of Michigan. (Communicated by C. WYTHE COOKE.)
In Professional Paper 143 of the United States Geological Survey,
1926, the writer described a number of new species of invertebrate
fossils from the Castle Hayne and Trent marls of North Carolina.
His attention has since been called to the preoccupation of two of the
specific names used in that paper, and to an earlier description of a
species which he described and named as new. The names incorrectly
used in Professional Paper 143 are Cassidulus berry: Kellum, applied to an echinoid from the Castle Hayne marl, Terebratula crassa Kellum, for a brachiopod from the Trent marl, and Macrocallista minuscula
Kellum, applied to a mollusk from the Trent marl. New specific
names are therefore proposed for the first two of these fossils and
an earlier name replaces the third.
Cassidulus (Pygorhynchus) sabistonensis Kellum, nom. nov.
New name for C. berryi Kellum, 1926, described and figured in U. 8. G.S. Prof. Paper 143: 15, pl. 1, f. 4-7. The specific name berry was used by M. W. TwitcHeEtu in 1915 for a Cassidulus occurring in the Waccamaw mar! at Neills Eddy Landing, Cape Fear River, N. C. This was published in U. S. G. S. Monograph 54 on The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Echinodermata of the United States. As the name is therefore preoccupied in this genus, I propose the specific name sabistonensis for the form collected two miles north of Jacksonville, Onslow County, N. C. on the farm of E. W. SaBISsTON.
Terebratula posteriora Kellum, nom. nov.
New name for 7. crassa Kellum 1926. The specific name crassa is pre- occupied in this genus, having been used by D’Arcutac in 1846. The writer’s attention was called to this fact by WitL1am Heauny DALL in a letter dated October 20, 1926. Dr. Dau says: ‘““Now there is an earlier Terebratula crassa of D’Archiac 1846; see Soc. Geol. France mém. 2me ser. 2, p. 318, pl. 18, figs. 8a-d, 9—according to Carus and ENGLEMANN.”’
As this new species from North Carolina has been found at only one local- ity and all specimens collected are broken along the anterior margin, the new name posteriora is indicative of the part of the shell usually preserved.
Callista (Callista) nuesensis (Harris)
Synonym: Macrocallista minuscula Kellum 1926. This species was de- scribed and figured by G. D. Harris in 1919 in the Bulletin of American
1 Received December 17, 1930.
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
Paleontology vol. 6, No. 31, p. 186, pl. 48, figs. 4-7, 10, as Meretrix neusensis In February 1927, KATHERINE VAN WINKLE PALMER in a monographic study of the Veneridae of Eastern America, Vol. 1, No. 5, assigned this species to the genus Callista. ‘The specimens figured by these authors are casts of the interior and exterior, except for one pseudomorph. ‘The valve figured by the writer in Prof. Paper 143, pl. 10, figs. 1-2, is an almost perfectly preserved shell. .
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
236TH MEETING
The 236th meeting of the AcapEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, December 18, 1930. About ninety persons were present. President Bowie called the meeting to order at 8:15 and introduced the speaker of the evening, Prof. A. M. Banta of Brown University and Re- search Associate of the Carnegie Institution.
Program: A. M. Banta: What the crustacean tells us about evolution.— Studies in parthenogenetic inheritance in Cladocera have revealed the occur- ence of certain mutations—some morphological, others physiological in their effects. By means of selection some of these changes have been progressively increased or decreased in accord with the direction sought in selection. Since selection and return selection have been successful in whichever direction attempted, it appears that further genetic changes (new mutations) are occurring. Such derivation of two different and relatively stable types from a single ancestor seems to represent evolution in its simplest form and it is believed that these studies may throw some light upon one of the methods of evolution.
As one of the results of the study of some of the mutant characters in Daphnia longispina in sexual reproduction it was found that the characters studied were inherited, as anticipated, in typical mendelian fashion. An unexpected result of the studies in sexual reproduction was the finding of evidence that many physiological mutations occur during parthenogenesis. Further studies on this point have shown that after a long and uninterrupted succession of parthenogenetic generations, numerous lethal, sublethal and other physiological recessive mutations (not present or present in very limited numbers in the early parthenogenetic generations) have accumulated during the long period of parthenogenesis. ‘This was demonstrated by (1) inbreed- ing among the members of a parthenogenetic pure line or clone early in its parthenogenetic history and (2) again after the lapse of a large number of parthenogenetic generations. Few of these recessive lethal and other phy- siological characters manifest themselves in the early inbreeding; many mani- fest their presence in the later inbreeding experiments.
One character, ‘‘thermal,’’ which appeared in the inbreeding of a clone long parthenogenetic was of more than usual interest. It is a recessive which presumably occurred as a mutation during parthenogenesis but in simplex or hetorozygous condition and manifested itself only when it became duplex or homozygous in one of the sexually produced offspring derived from inbreeding the clone involved. Individuals of this derived thermal clone were more resistant to high temperatures, less resistant to lower temperatures, had a
FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 53
higher optimum temperature and in other ways manifested their thermal character as contrasted with individuals of other related but non-thermal clones. Such an origin of thermalness offers the possibility of explanation of the origin of thermal races in nature by mutation rather than by a long period of acclimatization as we have been wont to assume. (Author’s abstract.)
237TH MEETING
The 237th meeting of the AcapEmy, being the 33rd annual meeting, was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15, on Thursday, Janu- ary 15, 1931, with 125 persons present. | Vice-President J. M. Coopmr called the AcapEmy to order at 8:15 and introduced the retiring President, WILLIAM Bow1z, who addressed the AcapEMy upon, Shaping the earth.
At the close of the address the Vice-President announced the annual business meeting and declared a recess, with the request that members of the AcapEMy remain. Then President Bowie called the meeting to order.
The minutes of the 32nd annual meeting were read by the Recording Secretary and approved. The report of the Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TUCKERMAN, recorded an addition of 31 new members during the year 1930, and the election of Dr. Frank WiGGLEsSworTH Cuark, Dr. Wituiam H. Houmes and Dr. Letanp O. Howarp as honorary members. The members of the AcapEmy stood for a moment in respectful memory of the following members who died during the year:
E. C. Cuincotrr Louis MAcCKALL ASAPH HALL WILuiAM A. ORTON OLIVER P. Hay DANIEL W. SHEA
FRANK J. Katz
The membership was summarized for the year as 18 honorary members, 3 patrons, 1 life member and 560 members. Total membership 582, of whom 381 reside in or near the District of Columbia. The report of the Corresponding Secretary was approved.
The report of the Recording Secretary showed that 8 meetings had been held, of which one was a joint meeting with the Geological Society. Seven of the meetings were devoted to the series of lectures upon Origin and evolu- tion. ‘The names of the speakers and titles were given. The minutes of these meetings and abstracts of the addresses given had been prepared for publication in the Journal. The report of the Recording Secretary was ordered accepted.
The Treasurer, H. G. Avrers, reported in full upon the investments, receipts and expenditures of the Acapemy. ‘The summary showed receipts during the year, $7,805.34. Bank balance January 1, 1930, $2,798.70. Total to be accounted for, $10,604.04. Disbursements, $9,584.35. Bank balance, December 31, 1930, $1,019.47.
FINANCIAL STATEMENT
ASSETS | LIABILITIES CHS 9 ee ames ce, ek Me $1,019.47 Dwesiprepaidhawne ke as. $20.00 Imvestments.... 2.5.55. 21,133.87 Subscriptions prepaid..... 294 .70 Accounts receivable....... 50.00 Accounts Payable (Esti- Duestunpaid (2l)/2. 220. 105.00 TAGE) Sees eee! A 350.00 $22 308.34 Estimated net worth...... 21,643.64
$22, 308 . 34
54 JOURNAL OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
The report of the Auditors was received and both reports were declared approved.
Professor E. W. Woouarp, Senior Editor, reported for the JourNAL of the Acapremy that volume 20 consists of 520 pages, including 85 half-tones and 47 line-cuts. It contains 56 original papers occupying 418.6 pages and representing 14 different branches of science; the proceedings of the AcADEMY and affiliated societies occupy 74.4 pages; notes and news, and obituaries occupy 19 pages. The total cost of producing and distributing the Journal was $3531.52. The report of the Editor was approved.
An informal report of the Meetings Committee was given by Dr. W. J. HUMPHREYS.
L. VY. Jupson, Chairman of the Board of Tellers, announced the election of the following officers for 1931:
N. A. Coss, President
Cyrus ADLER and W. D. COOLIDGE, Nonpesilent Vice-Presidents
Pau. E. Hows, Corresponding Secretary
CHARLES THoM, Recording Secretary
H. G. Avers, Treasurer.
L. B. Tuckerman and N. M. Jupp, Managers for the term of three years ending January, 1934. |
The Corresponding Secretary then read the nominations for Vice-Presi- dents of the AcapEmy as received from the affiliated societies, and the Re- cording Secretary was authorized to cast one ballot for the AcapEmy, electing the following members as Vice-Presidents:
Anthropological, Dr. Joun M. CooPEr Archaeological, Dr. WALTER HouGH Bacteriological, Dr. L. A. Rocurs Biological, Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE Botanical, Dr. H. B. HuMpHREY Chemical, Dr. R. E. Gipson Electrical Engineers, Dr. G. W. VINAL Engineers, Mr. W. E. PARKER Entomological, Dr. Harotp Morrison Foresters, Dr. F. C. CRAIGHEAD Geographic, Dr. F. V. CoviLuE Geological, Dr. G. R. MANSFIELD Helminthological, Dr. Paut BarTscH Historical, Mr. ALLEN C, CLARK Mechanical Engineers, Mr. H. L. WHITTEMORE Medical, Dr. Hpnry C. MacaTEE Military Engineers, Colonel C. H. BirpsEYE Philosophical, Dr. H. L. Curtis
At the close of the business meeting, President Bow1E appointed Past- President W. J. HumMpHREY to escort President-elect N. A. Cons to the Chair. The new President spoke briefly, and there being no further business, de-’ clared an adjournment at 10:25.
CHARLES THom, Recording Secretary.
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 1007TH MEETING
The 1007th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 10, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding.
FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 55
Program: G. H. KnuLtecan: Measurement of the elastic hysteresis by means of tuning forks—The damping of the vibrations of a tuning fork when freely suspended is due mainly to elastic hysteresis, provided that the material of which the fork is made has negligible elastic afterworking. The damping, therefore, can be predicted from pure statical results provided that the stati- cal flexure of the forks differs very little from that realized during the free vibrations. Statical and dynamical data obtained for a U-shaped fork of Armco-iron illustrate this point. This investigation makes it possible to measure elastic hysteresis by means of a freely vibrating fork instead of the tedious, time-consuming and less sensitive statical method. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, Brown, and HawKESWORTH.
L. V. Jupson: New instruments and methods in length measurements of high precision.—An extensive program of intercomparisons and calibrations of grad- uated meter and decimeter bars has been carried out at the Bureau of Standards during the past three years using the new high-precision longitudinal com- parator made by the Société Genevoise d’Instruments de Physique. The author described the comparator and discussed the measurements made with this instrument. He pointed out that in the case of standards with good sur- faces and lines, the residuals generally average less than 0.05 micron, and that the probable errors of the computed values for the differences in length of two standards or for the relative lengths of the subintervals of a standard are rather consistently of the order of 0.02 or 0.03 micron.
The manner by which the corrections to intervals as short as 0.1 mm. are determined using as the basis the U. S. national prototype meter was briefly outlined. Allusion was made to computations, still in progress, to determine the reliability of the several possible methods of obtaining the corrections to the subintervals of a graduated scale.
It was pointed out that the measurement of angles is a natural extension of measurements of length as the same general fundamental principles govern and somewhat similar equipment is used. With the Bureau’s one-meter circular dividing engine several circles have been graduated and one 9-inch circle has been tested in some detail using the circle-testing equipment of the Bureau. With this latter instrument consistent and repeated settings and calibrations are possible to 1 second or better, and in the case of the circle just referred to, no errors in the graduation of the circle were found in excess of 2 seconds. It was concluded that these two instruments, both made by the same Swiss firm as the length comparator, are, like that comparator, in- struments of high precision. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Hryt, Curtis, BROMBACHER, and FERNER.
1008TH MEETING
The 1008th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 24, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding.
Program: Paut R. Hey: The place of reason in nature—Most thinking persons, especially scientific men, hold reason in the highest esteem. There are, however, several schools of thought that regard it differently. These are the philosophy of pessimism, one branch of theology, the pragmatic philosophy of Peirce and William James, and the irrational philosophy of Bergson.
It was pointed out that while reason is undoubtedly equal to all quantita- tive demands, there may be criticisms of a qualitative nature made against it. (Author’s abstract.)
56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
1009TH MEETING
The 1009th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 11, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding.
Program: M. F. Peters: An investigation of the effectiveness and reliability of electric sparks in automotive cgnition.—The effectiveness of ignition sparks was determined by measuring the volume (or mass) of hydrogen and of oxy- gen which combines at low pressures. The sparks were generated by a magneto and an ignition spark coil. It was found that with constant energy the amount of reaction increases as the capacitance component of the spark increases. The use of a series spark gap may decrease or increase the amount of reaction, the effect depending upon the amount and the distribution of capacitance in the circuit. So far as the work has progressed, it has been found that sparks reported by other investigators as being most efficient for igniting lean mixtures cause the largest amount of reaction. Differences between the amount of reaction with a magneto spark and an ignition spark coil were noted. The method appears to offer a means of determining the most efficient spark generator for internal combustion engines as well as determining a relation between the character of spark, energy and effective- ness in igniting inflammable mixtures.
Further details of this investigation are given in a report which is to be issued as National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical Report No. 369. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. HuLBURT, WHITE, and SILSBHE.
W. G. BRoMBACHER. Temperature coefficient of the modulus of rigidity of instrument-diaphragm and spring materials.—In cooperation with the National Advisory Committee, the Bureau of Standards is determining experimen- tally the temperature coefficient of the elastic moduli of commonly used spring and diaphragm materials in the temperature range —50° to +50° Centigrade. Such data are of particular interest in determining the effect of temperature on the performance of air-craft instruments.
The temperature coefficient m is defined by the relation
a La Gy Tae da in which G and G, are the moduli of rigidity at temperatures T°C. and 0°C.
The description of the apparatus and the methods of procedure were presented for determining this coefficient by means of the torsion pendulum.
Results were given for monel metal, brass, phosphor bronze, coin silver, nickel silver, oil-tempered steel, piano wire, chromium-vanadium steel, chromium-molybdenum steel and a stainless steel and also the effect of heat treatment on the coefficient for a number of the materials.
A full description of the work is given in National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical Report No. 358. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. CANFIELD, HUMPHREYS, WHITE, and MEHL.
1010TH MEETING
The 1010th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 25, 1930, PrEsIDENT LAMBERT presiding.
Program: C. L. GARNER: An outline of the expanded program of geodetic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey—To explain the future program for geodetic work, it is necessary to review some of the events leading up to the present. In 1925, Congress passed the Temple Act, which authorized the
FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 57
completion of the topographic map of the United States in a period of twenty years. This Act apparently implied that appropriations would be made from year to year, as required to carry on the work. Topographic maps are a result of cooperative surveys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Geological Survey, the former Bureau performing that part of the work known as control surveys, consisting principally of first-order triangulation and leveling. Upto this fiscal year, there was no increase in the funds annually made available for the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Bureau did not take any part in the program, other than to extend such control surveys as its limited funds per- mitted. The appropriations for the current year carried an increase of some $240,000 for the execution of control surveys as the Coast Survey’s initial part of the program for completing the topographic map of the United States. For the most part these control surveys will consist of first-order triangulation and leveling, the triangulation being the means of determining the latitudes and longitudes of marked stations, and the azimuths and distances between them, while the leveling furnishes the elevations of bench marks.
Approximately 27,000 miles of triangulation, measured along the axes of the various schemes, have been completed, and the work under the new pro- gram is to divide the open areas by a sufficient number of arcs so that few places in the country will be more than twenty-five miles from a triangulation station. Schemes of first-order triangulation will generally be about one hundred miles apart, while second-order schemes will be run midway between the first-order arcs, thus placing the ares or bands of triangulation at intervals of about fifty miles. Other arcs of triangulation, at right angles to those described, will be run at intervals of about one hundred miles for the purpose of coordinating the entire scheme in one rigid framework, for purposes of adjustment. This additional work will require about forty thousand miles of triangulation, as measured along the line of progress, consisting of about equal amounts of first- and second-order work.
During the earlier work, arcs of triangulation were extended mostly over mountainous or rolling country where long lines could be used to extend con- trol as rapidiy as possible with the cash outlays available. The difficulty of transporting the parties and equipment into isolated sections also contributed toward the same end. As a result long lines over 100 miles in length were very ordinary, while some were in excess of 170 miles. After the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts were connected and there were other ares sufficient for adjustment purposes, long lines were no longer important. Further than this, with the extension of triangulation into the more settled and developed regions, which are also on comparatively level ground, it is impossible because of the curvature of the earth, and in many places because of tall trees, to secure long lines even though it were desired. Considering the fact that schemes with short lines do not decrease the accuracy of triangulation when extended across country, and to the further fact that short lines have the effect of placing a larger number of stations in any unit area than where long lines are used, the value of the stations to local engineers or surveyors is in- creased correspondingly. It is difficult and expensive for a local engineer to connect to a triangulation station which is a considerable distance from any particular project he has in mind, while it is comparatively simple and inex- pensive to make connections to stations which are nearby. For that reason, the lengths of future lines of first and second order triangulation will be held to an average of between 10 and 12 miles, with few lines exceeding 15 miles in length except in mountainous regions where due to topography and
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
transportation it may be impracticable to hold to this lower limit. In such cases it may be necessary to allow a few lines with lengths of about 25 miles.
Recent accomplishments of first-order triangulation are the completion of five moderately short arcs during the summer of 1930, as follows: From La Crosse to Fond du Lac, Wis., from Columbus, Nebr., to Joliet, Ill., and three arcs radiating east, north and west from Cairo, IIl., to Nashville, Tenn., to the 39th-parallel triangulation in the vicinity of Belleville, Ill., and to Poplar Bluff, Mo., respectively. Other arcs to be started in the near future and due to be completed by June 30, 1931, are from Fort Smith, Ark., south to Port Arthur, Tex., from Shreveport, Tee. to Forest, Miss., and from Mobile, Ala., closely ‘paralleling the Gulf Coast, to Corpus Christi, Tex. All of this work is particularly important because of the need for an adjustment of the triangu- lation network of the United States east of the 98th meridian. An adjust- ment of the triangulation net of the United States west of the 98th meridian was made in 1927. ‘These two adjustments, when completed, will be based on a large network strong and securely tied together at frequent intervals, and will cover the entire country with the most reliable positions obtainable. These will be held final, and on all future arcs of triangulation it will merely be necessary to adjust them between the junction points with ares of the above framework.
It should be said that in first-order triangulation average triangle closures of 1 second or less are required, while the maximum allowable closure for a single triangle is 3 seconds. On second-order work the average closure is required to be 3.0 seconds or less, while the maximum closure of a single triangle should not exceed 8.0 seconds. ‘The experience of over one hundred years of observations shows clearly that where maximum single triangle closures are not allowed to exceed 3 seconds, the average closure for a season will very seldom exceed 1.0 seconds, and consequently this criteria is used in classifying the order of triangulation.
In the extension of first-order levels, the same principle holds regarding distribution of marks as with the triangulation stations, that is, for few places in the country to be further than 25 miles from a bench mark. Lines will be run largely along the important lines of communication, such as railroads and highways, in areas which have not been given attention before. Bench marks and triangulation stations are of most value when they are readily accessible at or near the highways, and while it is not practicable to establish all triangulation stations along a railroad or highway, it is entirely possible to so locate the bench marks, and this has been the custom throughout the history of leveling. Incidentally it may be mentioned that formerly the leveling of the country was extended almost wholly along the railroads. This was because of the easy grades encountered and the resultant increased prog- ress and correspondingly reduced cost of the work. As leveling is extended into the intermediate regions, however, it is seen that railroads will, in the majority of cases, not be available, and it will be necessary to extend the lines along highways or even totally unimproved roads.. Work of this character is slow and expensive as the grades are much steeper than along railroads, and this requires many more instrument stations and slows up the work. At the same time, the marks are perhaps of more use to the average citizen than in other areas, as in many cases the lines will be along avenues of development where engineering or surveying projects are in operation and where the eleva- tions of the marks will be of immediate use.
Approximately 60,000 miles of first and second order leveling will be re- quired to complete the program. First-order lines will be run at intervals of
FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 09
about 100 miles, while such intervals will each be divided by one line of second- order levels.
It is believed that this program will be complete in about twelve years. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Lirrrock, Priest, Bowirn, RAPPLEYE, CANFIELD, HumpuHreys and MArMER.
F. S. Borpren: Recent developments in the hydrographic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey with special reference to the survey of Georges Bank.
Of the four major classes of transportation, namely: rail, water, highway and air, it can be said that the first mentioned is the only one which has reached real standardization. The highway is making rapid strides in that direction but it will probably be many years before water transportation reaches the high degree of standardization the railroad now enjoys. It will be still longer in the case of the newest means of travel, that by air.
The question may well arise as to why water transportation, one of the. earliest methods known to man, has not yet reached the degree of standard- ization of the railroad and that which we can foresee for the highway. One of the reasons would seem to be that the ocean liner has no well defined path to follow along the shortest practicable route such as has the express train or the automobile. Instead, on each of its journeys a new path must be deter- mined and, under favorable conditions, this is seldom the shortest practic- able route and quite frequently not the safest. If an automobilist passes a cross-road onto which he should have turned off, he is only slightly incon- venienced, but should the navigator at some critical point along his route, determine and steer an erroneous course, the result would undoubtedly be disaster with possible loss of life.
The principal aid to the navigator in keeping his vessel on the track which he desires to follow and on one which will avoid the numerous dangers that beset his path, is his chart. The extent to which his chart serves this purpose depends on the detail and accuracy of the information shown thereon and, in this respect, much is demanded by the present-day scientifically equipped navigator.
In order to bring our charts into keeping with the resources of modern science, it has been necessary to devise new and improved methods of survey- ing those extensive areas which lie out of sight of land but still fall on the shelves which border our coasts. On the Pacific Coast these methods have been well standardized and rapid progress is now being made toward the completion of a new series of standard charts. On the Atlantic Coast the standardization of methods has been somewhat slower, but this process is now reaching the final stage and we can foresee within a few years the same rapid progress that is being made on the Pacific Coast.
I hope to be able with the aid of a few slides to show the reason for the demand for more adequate surveys, and the steps we are taking to meet this demand, some of the difficulties encountered, and finally an outline of the methods actually employed on one of our most recent projects.
Slide No. 1
The old and the new—a month or more to cross the Atlantic as compared with a few days—wooden sailing vessels drawing 15 feet as compared with steam vessels of steel drawing 40 feet. Aids to navigation, very limited, as compared with those of the modern liner having precise sextants, gyro com- passes, electric logs, echo soundings, radio bearings and powerful lighthouses. And, in order to obtain the maximum usefulness and the highest degree of security from these present-day resources, the liner must have a modern chart.
60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
Slide No. 2
Echo Sounding—Proceeding at full speed, the modern ocean liner has a continuous record of the depths over which it is passing. If the chart shows the configuration of the bottom accurately and in sufficient detail, these records can be used in fixing the position of the ship. On the other hand, if the chart does not portray a true contour map of the ocean bottom, the position of the ship becomes uncertain. This uncertainty means greater precautions, slower voyages, delayed arrivals and increased operating ex- penses. This new device has had considerable to do with the increased demand not only for more accurate and more detailed surveys but also for the extension farther seaward of such surveys.
Slide No. 3
_ QOne type of echo sounding device—the Fathometer—and the one used principally on the surveying vessels of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. This slide shows the recording part of the instrument. Into it comes the impulse of the echo from the ocean bottom transmitted from an oscillator on the vessel. The impulse is received by a hydrophone in the bottom of the vessel and is amplified sufficiently to cause a red flash on the revolving dial, measuring the elapsed time of sound travel to and from the ocean floor, but calibrated to read the depth directly in fathoms. The dial of this particular instrument revolves at a speed of 246 revolutions per minute corresponding to a velocity of sound of 820 fathoms (4920 feet).
Slide No. 4
The velocity of sound in salt water varies over an extreme range of from about 790 fathoms to about 870 fathoms per second depending on the tem- perature, salinity and pressure of the water through which the sound travels. Roughly, it may be stated that the velocity increases 0.2 of one per cent for every increase of 1° in the temperature, is augmented 0.11 per cent for every 100 meter depth and increases 0.1 per cent for every 1 per cent increase in the salinity. On any surveying project, sufficient measurements are made of the salinity and temperature at various depths to correct the echo soundings.
Slide No. 5
Comparison between the frequency and speed of echo and hand-lead soundings. |
Slide No. 6
Installation on the Lydonia—The Fathometer there provides both the navi- gator and the hydrographer with an excellent method of obtaining depth, but the concern of the hydrographer does not stop here. For every practical purpose, a charted sounding must be considered as having three dimensions. A measurement of depth is of value not simply in proportion to the accuracy with which it was made, but equally in proportion to the accuracy with which we locate the point on the ocean’s surface from which it was made. A group of accurate soundings plotted on the chart in their correct positions relative to each other will give an accurate indication of a submarine valley or any other characteristic feature suitable for use by the navigator in fixing his position. The same soundings incorrectly placed with reference to one another may give a seriously erroneous picture. Let us consider that the depth determination furnishes us with the first dimension of our sounding and
FEB. 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 61
turn to the second and third dimensions, it being assumed that we are out of sight of land and can not depend on shore objects to fix the sounding vessel’s position.
Slide No. 7
Again we make use of the transmission of sound through water, in this ease horizontally. Here we have a depth bomb of TNT fired from astern of the vessel. The sound travels to a hydrophone planted near the shore, the position of which is accurately known. Here the impulse is picked up and amplified and automatically and instantaneously passes through the shore station back to the vessel by radio. The time interval, as recorded on the tape of the sounding vessel’s chronograph, between the reception of the bomb and _ the returning signal from the shore station plus the time it has taken the sound to travel from the bomb to the ship’s hydrophone gives a measure of the distance between the bomb and the shore station hydrophone—and we have our second dimension of the sounding taken at the time the bomb was dropped.
Slide No. 8
And adding a second shore station to our equipment, we, in the same way, obtain the third dimension of our sounding.
Slide No. 9
Shore Station on the Pacific Coasi—Unfortunately we can not boast of any such shore stations on the Atlantic Coast or that we have thus far been able to employ the exact methods of obtaining the second and third dimension that work so successfully on the Pacific Coast and in Alaska. However, we learned very definitely during the past summer that the method can be used, at least off the New England Coast, provided floating stations are substituted for the shore stations and are anchored in sufficient depths of water. The slides from now on, in so far as the hydrophone station is con- ene, pertain to a floating station rather than to a shore station as shown
ere.
Slides Nos. 10-27
Georges Bank Project—Showing methods employed in the survey of Georges Bank and a slide of the submarine valley found along its southeastern edge. The valley is 2 miles wide and cuts back into the shelf for a distance of 8 miles. It makes an ideal submarine landmark for westbound transatlantic steamers approaching Georges Bank. (Author’s abstract.)
‘4 Discussed by Messrs. Hick, CANFIELD, Curtis, DorsEy, Hazarp, and ERAN. Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Dr. Davin Wuits, senior geologist of the Geological Survey and home secretary of the National Academy of Sciences, was awarded the Penrose Medal of the Society of Economic Geologists at the Toronto meeting in December, 1930. This medal is given not oftener than once every three years “in recognition of unusually original work in the earth sciences.”
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4
Miss Frances Densmore, Bureau of Ethnology, who has been in Wash- ington for a few weeks, has left for Florida to study the music and songs of the Seminole Indians.
Dr. Norman L. Bowen of the Geophysical Laboratory has been awarded the Bigsby medal of the Geological Society (London) in recognition of the value of his study of the physical chemistry of igneous rocks. The last recipient of the medal in the United States was the late Coartes D. WaucoTtT who was awarded it in 1895.
CORRECTIONS TO 1930 “RED BOOK”
The following corrections to the list of AcapEMy members are arranged, so that if desired they may be cut out and pasted in the Red Book.
ASHLEY, George H., State Capitol, Harrisburg, Pa. A Gl BARTLETT, Edward P., Dupont Ammonia Corp., Wilmington, Del. A BROWN, Thomas B., 155 Scituate St., Arlington, Mass. AP CURTIS, Heber, D., Detroit Observatory, Ann Arbor, Mich. A HARPER, D. R., 3rd, 222 Gladstone Rd., Pittsburgh, Pa. A HRDLICKA, Ales, National Museum. 2900 Tilden St. A An M HUNNEWELL, F. A., Coast Guard. 14 W. Irving St., Ch. Ch., Md. AE JACOBY, Henry S., 3000 Tilden St. AE JARDINE, William M., Tower Bldg., 14th & K Sts. The Mayflower. A The following name appears twice:
LOHR, L. R., 160 N. LaSalle St., Chicago, IIl. A In place of the first, substitute:
LOEB, Leo, Wash. Univ. School of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo. A MICHELSON, Truman, Smithsonian Institution. 1710 Que St. A An PIENKOWSKY, Arthur T., Bureau of Standards. 2923 Tilden St. AE PINCHOT, Gifford, Milford, Pike County, Pa. ASBE SCHULTZ, Eugene S., Bureau of Plant Industry A SHAPOVALOV, M., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. A SMITH, Charles Meldrum, 424 Allison St. A
SMITH, George Otis, Federal Power Commission. 2137 Bancroft Place. AE G Gl
STEBINGER, Eugene, 710 Edificio Banco Boston, Buenos Aires, Argentina A Gl
WHERRY, Edgar T., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
AC Gl
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BOTANY .—Plants new to Arizona. (An annotated list of species added to the recorded flora of the state or otherwise interesting).* By THOMAS H. Kearney, Bureau of Plant Industry.
Arizona has a rich and remarkable flora. The great diversity of natural conditions produces a corresponding diversity of life forms and floral elements. There could scarcely be a greater contrast than that between the Sonoran flora of the hot deserts of the southwestern part of the state, only a few hundred feet above sea-level, where cacti and other xerophytic forms predominate, and the arctic-alpine flora of the summit of San Francisco Mountain, with an altitude of nearly 13,000 feet. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 3.5 inches at Yuma to 30 inches at Crown King in Yavapai County.
Several floral provinces meet and overlap in Arizona. On the grass- covered plains of the eastern section, there are numerous species characteristic of the Great Plains region from Kansas to Texas. The Rocky Mountain flora is well represented on the higher mountains. The Great Basin region of Utah and Nevada shares many of its species with northern Arizona. Constituents of the flora of the Mohave Desert region are found in large number near the western edge of the state. In southwestern Arizona there are many species that occur elsewhere only along and near the Gulf of California. A large number of Mexican and Central American species, more or less tropical in their affinities, just cross the southern border of the state. There are even, in southeastern Arizona, a few species whose main center of distribution is the Atlantic and Mississippi Valley States. Finally, of course, many Old World species have become established as weeds.
During the past five years, extensive collections of the flowering plants and ferns of Arizona have been made by members of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, whose headquarters
*Received February 6, 1931. 63
64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5
are the U. 8. Field Station at Sacaton, on the Gila River, some 45 miles southeast of Phoenix. This group includes George J. Harrison, Robert H. Peebles, Harold F. Loomis, Harold J. Fulton, Chalmers J. King, and the writer.. Frank A.Thackery, A. R. Leding, and M. French Gilman of the Bureau of Plant Industry and W. J. Osborn of the Forest Service, with headquarters at Flagstaff, also have contributed materially to the Sacaton collection.
A list of the flowering plants and ferns of Arizona, with keys to the families, genera and species, is being compiled by Ivar Tidestrom of the Bureau of Plant Industry,